无领袖抵抗：修订间差异

英语

无领袖抵抗（又称幽灵细胞结构）是一种小型的独立团体（隐蔽细胞）挑战一个确定的敌手——例如政府——的一种政治抵抗策略。无领袖抵抗包含非暴力的分裂瓦解和不服从反抗行为，以及轰炸、刺杀，以及其他的暴力搅动。无领袖的细胞体缺乏双向性的，垂直的指挥连结——他们是没有领导者的团队。[1]

由于这个策略的简单性，无领袖抵抗已经被广泛地运用于各种运动中，从恐怖主义、优越论主义团体，到动物权利、反全球化、反堕胎，以及环保主义的运动积极分子们都已广泛运用。

主要特征

典型地，细胞体所包含的人数通常少于三人（并且多于12人的情况十分罕见）。这种结构的基本特征就是每个细胞体之间没有清楚的联系，否则它们就有可能会朝着同一个方向发展。细胞体中的成员对具体还有谁也在为了跟他同样的原因进行煽动活动知之甚少，甚至全然不知。

有些无领袖运动具有象征的标志。这个标志可以是一个挑选了主要攻击目标和对象，并且没有实际操纵或执行任何计划的一个公众人物，或者具有启发性的作者。媒体，在这种情况中，经常会制造正面影响的良性循环：发布一个运动主要模型的声明会慢慢灌输人们这个活动的动机，理念以及精神上对于潜在的煽动者的假想的同情，这就赋予了这个标志更大的权威性。虽然初看时可能会被认为是垂直命令的结构，其实它很明显是单向的：一个名义上的领袖做出宣言，一些运动分子有可能对这个号召作出反应，但是在组织的这两个层级之间并没有任何确定的联系。

结果就是，无领袖抵抗的细胞体的大体不会受到内奸和反叛者的任何影响。由于这种结构及没有可以被摧毁的中央机构，也没有能够被渗透的各细胞体间的连接，政府机构要想遏制无领袖抵抗运动的发展要比阻止传统的阶层组织难得多。

由于它不匀称的特性，并且经常会采用明显不平衡表象的机构力量作为战略，无领袖抵抗和游击战有着许多相似共通之处。然而游击战的战略，经常还会保有某些形式的组织化的，双向的领导机制，并且有着较广大人数的行动要比无领袖的个人细胞体行动要来得多得多。在一些情况下，大规模的无领袖用可能发展出互相密和的暴动或者游击运动，成功的例子就是第二次世界大战中的南斯拉夫游击队。（Yugoslav partisans）同样是在二战中，英国更大范围地采用这种手段来领导抵抗德国的入侵。

While the concept of leaderless resistance is often based on resistance by violent means, it is not limited to them. The same structure can be used by non-violent groups authoring, printing and distributing samizdat literature, using the Internet to create self-propagating boycotts against political opponents, maintaining an alternative electronic currency outside of the reach of the taxing governments and transaction-logging banks.

理念的历史

The concept of leaderless resistance was reportedly developed by Col. Ulius Louis Amoss, an alleged U.S. intelligence officer, in the early 1960s. An anti-communist, Amoss saw leaderless resistance as a backup for the possibility of a Communist seizure of the United States.

The concept was revived and popularized in an essay published by the anti-government activist Louis Beam in 1983 and again in 1992. Beam advocated leaderless resistance as a technique for white nationalists to continue the struggle against the U.S. government despite an overwhelming imbalance in power and resources.

Beam argued that conventional hierarchical pyramidal organizations are extremely dangerous for their participants, when employed in a resistance movement against government, because of the ease of disclosing the chain of command. A more workable approach would be to convince the like-minded individuals to form independent cells, without close communication between each other, but generally operating in the same direction.

小说中的无领袖抵抗

The 1996 novel Unintended Consequences by John Ross, portrays a successful rebellion by the American heartland after decades of bullying by faraway Washington and accurately depicts a leaderless resistance.

实际应用中的无领袖抵抗

极右派

The concept of leadership resistance remains important to much far right thinking in the United States [3], both in response to Amoss' initial fear (foreign forces on U.S. soil) but increasingly also—in line with Beam—as a response to perceived federal government over-reach at the expense of individual rights. The actions of Timothy McVeigh are perhaps the most extreme example in the United States. McVeigh acted largely alone, but based on motivations widespread amongst the anti-government and militia movement.

Leaderless resistance is not only used toward anti-government ends on the far right. Xenophobic organizations such as White Aryan Resistance and the British neo-Nazi Combat 18 have adopted and advocate the tactic. The modern Ku Klux Klan is also credited with having developed a leaderless resistance model. [4] Troy Southgate also advocated forms of leaderless resistance during his time as a leading activist in the National Revolutionary Faction and a pioneer of National-Anarchism.

伊斯兰恐怖主义

Leaderless resistance is also often well-suited to terrorist objectives. The Islamic terrorist organization Al-Qaeda provides a prototypical figurehead/leaderless cell structure. The organization may be pyramidal but sympathizers who act on its pronouncements often do so spontaneously and independently.

Given the small, clandestine character of terrorist cells it is easy to assume they necessarily constitute leaderless resistance models. Where a bidirectional affiliation occurs, however, the label is inappropriate. The men who executed the bombings of the London Underground on July 7, 2005 constituted a leaderless resistance cell in that they purportedly acted out of sympathy for Islamic fundamentalism but under their own auspices. The bombers involved in the September 11 attacks, by contrast, received training, direction and funding from Al-Qaeda and are not properly designated a leaderless cell.

动物权利运动

In the 1980s, the radical Earth First! environmental movement adopted the leaderless resistance model [5]. The strategy is now actively employed by animal rights and environmental interest groups, including Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty and the Earth Liberation Front (which broke from Earth First! when the older organization turned toward more moderate tactics).

Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty, provides a case study in how recruitment and mobilization can occur in a leaderless model. Comprehensive internet sites provide potential sympathizers lists, for instance, of senior Huntingdon personnel (including addresses) and businesses associated with the Huntingdon animal testing.

Despite some successes, leaderless animal rights and environmental movements generally lack the broad popular support that often occurs in strictly political or military conflicts.

反抗手段

对于经典配置的网络分析

The social networks based on leaderless resistance are potentially vulnerable to network analysis and its derivative link analysis. Link analysis of social networks is the fundamental reason for the ongoing legislative push in the U.S. and the European Union for mandatory retention of telecommunication traffic data and limiting access to anonymous prepaid cellphones, as the stored data contain important network analysis clues. These practices are highly unfriendly to individual privacy but are often the only way to crack leaderless cells.

   See also: NSA call database

Network analysis was successfully used by French Colonel Yves Godard to break the Algerian resistance between 1955 and 1957 and force them to cease the bombing campaigns. The Algerian conflict maybe better described as guerrilla in nature rather than leaderless resistance (see Modern Warfare by Col. Roger Trinquier). The mapping data was obtained by the use of informants and torture and were used to obtain the identities of important individuals in the resistance; these were then assassinated, disrupting the Algerian resistance networks. The more unique the individual is in the adversary's network, the more difficult is the replacement and the greater is the damage.

无领袖挑战

Traditional organizations leave behind much evidence of their activities, such as money trails, and training and recruitment material. Leaderless resistances, as they are as much ideologies as organizations, generally lack such traces. The effects of their operations, globally reported by the mass media, act as a sort of messaging and recruitment advertising.

The internet provides investigators with further challenges. The individual cells (and even a single person can be a cell) can communicate over the internet, anonymously or semi-anonymously publishing and sharing information online, to be found by others through well-known websites. Even where legally and technically possible to ascertain who accessed what, it is often practically impossible to discern in reasonable timeframe who is a real threat and who is just curious, a journalist, or a web crawler.

Despite these advantages, leaderless resistance is often unstable. If the actions are not frequent enough or not successful, the stream of public messages, serving as the recruiting, motivation and coordination drives for other cells, diminishes. If the actions are too successful, the result will be formation of support groups and other social structures—structures vulnerable to network analysis.