農奴制
農奴制是一種在封建制度下、特別是莊園制度下的與農民地位相關的奴役制度。農奴制度主要發展在歐洲10世紀中世紀中期,持續到19世紀中葉,以財務束縛或變異的奴隸制為條件對農民實行奴役。農奴以自己的勞力,在國有或莊園主的土地工作,以換取保護和公正,以及在該土地上額外開墾耕作以保證自己的生計。
農奴制不僅涉及農作,也包括礦業、森業和築路。農奴制下,莊園形成了社會的基本單位,農奴形成了封建社會最低的社會階層。農奴受到法律、經濟和社會關係上的多重束縛。農奴不同於奴隸,農奴的領主只有不完全的人身佔有權。領主不能處死農奴,但能隨意處罰(黥面)或連同土地買賣、抵押和轉讓。農奴有義務為領主無償勞作,農奴的勞力也被定義為領主的產權。
1861年俄羅斯廢除的農奴制規定,領主的產業往往以農奴的數量來衡量。但農奴要困在莊園土地上,不得領主批准,不得離開。如果農奴逃亡,要受來自國家制度的懲罰,領主也會捕捉他們。[1]
定义
- 身份世襲。
- 与奴隶不同,農奴有权利拥有生产资料,但可以不曾拥有。
- 领主有法定的权利可以指令農奴,包括司法权。
词源
依附性和卑贱的等级
在封建社会中,如爵士和骑士一样,农奴有独特的地位:为了换取保护,农奴在领主的土地上生活劳动。这种庄园制系统展现了一定程度上的互惠作用。
基本原理是农奴“为所有人劳动”,骑士或爵士“为所有人战斗”,教士“为所有人祈祷”;这样,每个人都有相应的地位。农奴的食宿与报酬是最低的,但是相比奴隶来说,他至少还有在土地和财产上有一定权利。
成为农奴
自由人通常因武力或必需品而成为农奴。有时,当地巨头也会利用武力或法律优势来威胁保有不动产权者或自由地所有人,迫使他们依附自己。通常,当遇到歉收、战乱、土匪时,个人无法自给自足。此时,他可以与庄园主达成协定。为了换取保护,他需要提供服务:如现金、劳动或两者皆有。在“奴役”的仪式上,这些协议正式生效,农奴将自己的头放在主子的手下,类似于效忠的仪式,即诸侯将自己的手放在大君主手下。这些宣言以封建协定的方式将主子和新农奴联系起来,使他们的协定生效。[3]通常来说,这些协定十分严酷。七世纪盎格鲁-萨克森的“忠实宣言”称:
阶级制度
自由人
佃农
隶农
奴隶
农奴的义务
农奴的权利
变形
农奴制历史
各地废除農奴制的时间
以时间顺序为序:
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注释
- ^ Austin Alchon, Suzanne. A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective. University of New Mexico Press. 2003: 21. ISBN 0826328717.
- ^ Goldstein, "Reexamining Choice" (1986), pg. 109
- ^ Marc Bloch "Feudal Society: the growth of the ties of dependence".
- ^ Richard Oram, 'Rural society: 1. medieval', in Michael Lynch (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: University Press, 2005), p. 549.
- ^ J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to British History (Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 852.
- ^ J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to British History (Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 852.
- ^ Timeline: Bhutan. BBC News online. 2010-05-05 [2010-10-01].
更多阅读
- Backman, Clifford R. The Worlds of Medieval Europe Oxford University Press, 2003.
- Blum, Jerome. The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton UP, 1978)
- Coulborn, Rushton, ed. Feudalism in History. Princeton University Press, 1956.
- Bonnassie, Pierre. From Slavery to Feudalism in South-Western Europe Cambridge University Press, 1991 excerpt and text search
- Freedman, Paul, and Monique Bourin, eds. Forms of Servitude in Northern and Central Europe. Decline, Resistance and Expansion Brepols, 2005.
- Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. The World of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England. Glasgow: Cruithne P, 1994.
- Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed, Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352-2000 (2001) volume 2 pp 379–88
- Hoch, Steven L. Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov (1989)
- Kahan, Arcadius. "Notes on Serfdom in Western and Eastern Europe," Journal of Economic History March 1973 33:86-99 in JSTOR
- Kolchin, Peter. Unfree labor: American slavery and Russian serfdom (2009)
- Moon, David. The abolition of serfdom in Russia 1762-1907 (Longman, 2001)
- Scott, Tom, ed. The Peasantries of Europe (1998)
- Vadey, Liana. "Serfdom: Western Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed, Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352-2000 (2001) volume 2 pp 369–78
- White, Stephen D. Re-Thinking Kinship and Feudalism in Early Medieval Europe (2nd ed. Ashgate Variorum, 2000)
- Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. Russia's age of serfdom 1649-1861 (2008)
- Wright, William E. Serf, Seigneur, and Sovereign: Agrarian Reform in Eighteenth-century Bohemia (U of Minnesota Press, 1966).
- Wunder, Heide. "Serfdom in later medieval and early modern Germany" in T. H. Aston et al., Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton (Cambridge UP, 1983), 249-72
外部链接
- Serfdom, Encyclopaedia Britannica (on-line edition).
- Paul Vinogradoff. Serfdom. Encyclopædia Britannica (第11版). London. 1911.
- Peasantry (social class), Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- An excerpt from the book Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842–1927.
- The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970), "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis", Economic History Review 30:1 (March), pp. 18–32.