Mahmud Gawan: Difference between revisions

Mahmud Gawan
Mahmud Gawan
Amir of Amirs
Prime Minister
Tenure	1466–1481
Predecessor	Jahan Turk
Successor	Malik Hasan Bahri
Native name	Khwaja Mahmud Gilani
Years active	1458–1481
Born	1411; Gawan, Biya-pis
Died	5 April 1481 (age 69–70); Bidar, Bahmani Sultanate
Offices	Prime minister; Wakil-us-Sultanat (Chief Minister); Malik-ut-Tujjar (Prince of Merchants); tarafdar of Bijapur;
Issue	Ali; Abdullah; Alaf Khan;

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Mahmud Gawan (1411–1481) was a Persian statesman who served as the chief minister, or Peshwa^[2] from 1458 and de facto ruler of the Bahmani Sultanate as Prime minister from 1466 until his death in 1481. Mahmud Gawan, from the village of Gawan in Persia, was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian, and the sciences and was a poet and a prose writer of repute.

After emigrating from a small kingdom in Persia in 1453, Mahmud was appointed a high-ranking noble by Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah, the Sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate, and given an officer position. Upon his accession to the throne, Mahmud was made Chief Minister (Walik-us-Sultanat) with the title Prince of Merchants (Malik-ut-Tujjar) by Humayun Shah. He would rule as Chief Minister until the breakup of the five-year triumvirate regency council, himself a part of, which oversaw Sultans Nizam Shah and Muhammad Shah III Lashkari in 1466.^[3] Following the triumvirate's breakup, in which his power had been throttled by its other members, he would exercise a great deal of authority over the Bahmani kingdom in his supreme rule. During his reign, Mahmud enjoyed the trust and confidence of rulers, locals as well as that of foreign kingdoms, who had great respect for Mahmud. Amongst a factional conflict between the local (Deccanis) and foreign nobility (Afaqis), Mahmud would be executed in April of 1481 on Sultan Muhammad III's orders over a forged treasonous document by the Afaqis faction, headed by Malik Hasan Bahri, the chief orchestrator of the plot and Mahmud's successor as Prime minister.

Mahumd led many campaigns against and defended against the Sultanate's neighbors, including the Vijayanagara Empire, the Gajapati Empire, and the Malwa Sultanate, which resulted in the Bahmani Sultanate reaching its greatest territorial extent under his reign.^[2] Mahmud is notable for his construction of the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, a large centre of religious and secular learning (madrasa) built in Bidar in 1472 which emulated another college in Persia.

Origins

Mahmud Gawan was born in 1411, in the village of Gawan to a family of imperial ministers of a kingdom in Gilan, in northern Persia. His name at birth was Imadu'd-din Mahmud, according to the Persian historian Firishta, and his father's name was Jalalu'd-din Muhammad. Mahmud's family was of high rank, and according to his own account had included viziers in the city of Rasht.^[4] Political intrigues against Mahmud's family, instigated by a minister, Hajji Muhammad, and the commander of the Gilani forces, Syed Ali, succeeded in undermining the family's status, and at some point before 1440, both Mahmud and his brother, Shihabu'd-din Ahmad,^[5] left Gilan on the insistence of their mother.^[6] Mahmud had three sons, Abdullah, Ali, and Alaf Khan, and a brother who went to Mecca, all of whom were largely uninvolved in his later life in the Deccan.^[7]

Over the next decade and more Mahmud travelled through Southwest Asia and as far west as Anatolia and Egypt,^[8] becoming a successful merchant, in horses as well as other goods,^[8]^[1] and taking opportunites for study in Cairo and Damascus.^[9] He was offered ministerial positions in the courts of Khurasan and Iraq during these years, but declined them.^[8] In 1453, aged 42, he came to the port of Dabhol, hoping to sell horses to the Bahmani Sultanate,^[8] and also planning to meet Shah Muhibbu’llah, a holy man living in Bidar, the Bahmani capital, and then to travel to Delhi.^[10] He met first with the governor of Dabhol, and then traveled to Bidar. The Bahmani sultans of the era actively recruited Persians both as scholars and administrators, and Sultan Ahmad Shah II received Mahmud favourably.^[8]

Career

After introducing himself to the Bahmani court of Ahmad Shah II, Mahmud was made a noble with a rank of 1,000,^[a] and gave up his plans to travel onwards.^[10] In 1457, he was given charge of an elite formation of cavalry after he led the suppression of a minor rebellion of two family members of the sultan.^[1]^[12] Impressed with his military aptitude, Sultan Humayun Shah took him into his service upon Ahmad Shah II's death in 1459 and appointed him as Wakil-us-Sultanat, or Chief Minister following Ahmad Shah II's death. In Humayun Shah's accession speech, he states he appointed Mahmud as he fit the role of "one who should be clothed with the outward attributes of truth and good faith and who should inwardly be free from vices and vanity". In addition to his main role, Mahmud was given control of military affairs and was made tarafdar of Bijapur^[13] and "Prince of Merchants" (Malik-ut-Tujjar).^[14]^[1] After Humayun's death, he became one of the guardians of the underage Sultan Nizam Shah until his majority. This regency council consisted of Mahmud, the mother of Nizam Shah, and a noble named Jahan Turk.^[15] It worked well in depoliticizing the conflict between the two noble factions, the Deccanis — those native to the Deccan—and the foreigners, through the triumvirate's policy of appeasing these factions. It also deterred foreign invasions through its "unity of action" policy, which saw the regents consistently in agreement on the best course of action. This latter policy lasted until the death of Nizam Shah in 1463, and the cessation of it was the catalyst for increased factional strife.^[16]

The triumvirate continued to rule after the accession of Muhammad III, as he too was a minor. When he was fourteen years of age, the triumvirate regency came to a forced end when Jahan Turk was ordered murdered by the queen mother herself. Jahan Turk had been a disturbing force in the Sultanate by giving the new nobility positions in place of the old aristocracy, thus favouring the former and alienating the latter, and had been disliked for his rumoured embezzling of funds from the royal treasury and abuse of power. Through his influence and insistence on having his way, Jahan Turk sent Mahmud to administer the frontier provinces of the kingdom, and as Mahmud was "the moderating element in the Triumvirate", the stability of the state quickly collapsed. Jahan Turk was able to greatly increase his power with the absence of Mahmud, becoming the de facto ruler, and the queen mother, who took issue with this, had him killed then in 1466.^[17]^[18]

The queen mother retired from political affairs with the dissolution of the triumvirate, furthering Mahmud Gawan's lack of diplomatic and intellectual competition. A ceremony was held soon after the triumvirate's dissolution, where he was entrusted with the general supervision of all provinces (tarafs) of the Sultanate and given the title of Prime minister by the queen mother in 1466,^[19] a title formerly held by Jahan Turk,^[17] ensuing Mahmud's supreme rule as the de facto ruler of the Sultanate.^[1]^[19] He was given the formal title of “Lord of the habitors of the Globe, Secretary of the Royal Mansion, Deputy of the Realm", which he was addressed as in court documents.^[19]

Mahmud Gawan's foreign policy caused a drastic shift in the diplomatic atmosphere of South India; he temporarily allied his state with Vijayanagara around 1470,^[20] who had been rivals of the Bahmanis since the Sultanate's inception, and established a friendship with Mahmud Khalji of Malwa around 1468, with mutual envoys sent despite three past invasions of the kingdom by Khalji.^[21] He also strengthened diplomatic ties with Gujarat, whose ruler Mahmud Begada helped win these conflicts with Malwa.^[22]

Campaigns and reforms

Mahmud Gawan took part in and led many campaigns and enlarged the state to an extent never achieved before, with the Sultanate stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal^[23] through the annexation of the Konkan, the easternmost portion of Andhra, Goa, and the forming of a protectoral relationship with the Khandesh Sultanate.^[24] The capture of the Konkan virtually ceased the attacks on Muslim pilgrims and would grant the Bahmanis increased revenue in trade.^[25]^[14]^[26]

A map depicting the states of southern India in the 15th century

When the regency council took control after the accession of Nizam Shah, the rulers of Orissa, the Gajapatis, saw the Bahmani Sultanate as weak, which was typical in the presence of a regency. The Gajapati Emperor, Kapilendra Deva, saw fit to invade the Bahmani kingdom and reached as far as ten miles from the capital, Bidar. Mahmud, in addition with the other triumvirs and Nizam Shah himself, led an army against the Gajapatis and pushed them back from Bidar.^[27]

A year later, in 1462, the ruler of Malwa, Mahmud Khalji, in cooperation with the ruler of Khandesh and some other states, again invaded the Bahmani Sultanate. In the confrontation between the joint regency and the opposing side, an initial tactical advantage for the former turned into an unexpected defeat, and the Bahmani forces were forced to retreat.^[28] Following this, the court was temporarily moved to Firozabad, and Mahmud ordered the queen to delegate Bidar Fort, the fort protecting the capital, to a different noble. Khalji began laying siege to Bidar,^[29] and advanced to the citadel after seventeen days,^[30] but was forced into raising the siege not long after by the threat of the advancing joint army of Mahmud's and the king of Gujarat, Mahmud Begada, whom Mahmud and the queen had asked for assistance, to the north, and Jahan Turk to the south. Mahmud Begada, going by way of Malwa through his insistence not to enter the Deccan, as he wished to be closer to his homeland in case of internal conflict, along with Mahmud Gawan, successfully forced Khalji of Malwa to flee to his home country by way of Gondwana, as the way north to Malwa was blocked by the Bahmani and Gujarati forces. In his flight, Khalji's already wounded army was nearly eradicated by Gondi attacks and attrition.^[22]

Mahmud Khalji again invaded the following year, reaching Fathabad, but was repelled by a force that included Mahmud Gawan, again with the assistance of Mahmud Begada.^[31]

A third invasion by the Khalji of Malwa was known to be looming in 1468, and in anticipation Mahmud Gawan led forces near Khandesh, again in alliance with Gujarat.^[32] The main army of Berar, a Bahmani taraf, under the Bahmani general Yusuf Turk, besieged Kherla, then subordinate to Malwa. The Bahmanis had taken the citadel when two defenders deceived Yusuf Turk and murdered him, bringing the Khalji's forces down toward the city as a result,^[33] though a diverting of Mahmud's forces in the direction of the Khaljis's intimitaded him to retreat, ending the conflict with no clear victor.^[34] Its concluding treaty saw Kherla become a full territory of Malwa, while the Bahmanis retained all former lands, and reversed the diplomatic atmosphere of the two states to permanent friendship despite the past invasions.^[35]

Mahmud embarked on a successful campaign against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1469, conquering the city of Kanjeeveram and the entire Konkan.^[2]^[36] In 1472 he captured Goa and Dabhol,^[37] two of the most prosperous ports of the Vijayanagara Empire.^[2] Virupaksha of Vijayanagara tried to send forces to reclaim his losses in the Konkan in 1474, and attempted to lay siege to Goa,^[38] but was deterred by an army led by Mahmud alongside Muhammad III. Mahmud and his forces attacked and laid siege to Belgaum, and successfully took the city. The raja of Belgaum, in exchange for keeping his life, agreed to let his city be annexed to Mahmud.^[39]

In 1473, following Mahmud's many campaigns and territorial acquisitions, he reorganised the tarafs out of both the new and old territory held by the state, increasing the number from four to eight. This was done due to the increased adminstrative burden and the expansion of the Sultanate's territory, both partly due to his own policies. He also instituted reforms to set and standardise the payment and obligations of the nobles and to limit the provincial governor's control to the assignment of only one fort.^[2]^[36] These reforms would not be taken well by many of the nobles, whose power had been significantly curtailed.^[40]

Poetry and letters

Mahmud Gawan wrote poetry and letters, of which 148 are surviving.^[1] His collection of letters, called the Riyazul-Insha,^[41] included correspondence between many heads of state of the era, who greatly respected him,^[42] including Mehmed II, in which the Sultan addressed him as “Spreader of the Board of kindness and goodness, the Right Hand of the Bahmani State, Trustee of the Religion of Muhammad",^[43] Abu Sa'id Mirza and Husayn Bayqara of the Timurid Empire, and Qaitbay of the Mamluk Sultanate.^[44] He also corresponded with Persian poet Jami,^[45] in which his dominions were called the "envy of Rum itself", and corresponded with and invited to the Deccan many other poets, including Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi and Jalal al-Din Davani.^[46] These western contacts helped to make known the Deccan and Bahmani kingdom to the western and Islamic world, something which had been desirable for past Sultans but was expanded under Mahmud's ministership. Historian Haroon Khan Sherwani calls him "one of the most prominent Persian writers of the period."^[41]

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa

Mahmud built a madrasa in Bidar which is known as the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa. The complex stands at the centre of Bidar's old town, and was completed in 1472.^[47] The extensive library included a collection of 3,000 manuscripts, a large amount for the era.^[48] It was a three-storied building, each floor identical in structure, with two minarets, a mosque, library, labs, lecture halls and dormitories, which overlooked a courtyard with arches on either side.^[49] Historian Richard M. Eaton describes it as an "extraordinary place", with "arches and colorful glazed tiles recalling Timurid Central Asia, and its minaret and domes reminiscent of Mamluk Egypt".^[48]

The structure significantly deteriorated in the years following its inception. The building was damaged by a gunpowder explosion^[50] and thunder storm in 1696, which collectively rid it of half of the southern wing and half its front, and it was consistently neglected and left to decay through the elements. This neglect and its ruinous state caused the madrasa to become a public dumping ground for the people's filth and rubbish. The building later underwent a significant cleanup and renovation after being taken over by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1914 in an effort to improve its appearance.^[51]

Deccani-Afaqi conflict and execution

There existed a divide between the two factions of the Deccanis, who were of local origin, and the Afaqis (alternatively gharibs or Pardesi), who were of foreign origin.^[52] Reasons for the divisions included the Afaqis' Shi'a beliefs, which were seen as heretical by the Deccanis, and their language: the Afaqis spoke favoring Persian rather than Deccani.^[53]^[54] Mahmud, as he hailed from Persia and was likely Shi'a himself,^[55] was a Pardesi, so he faced many challenges. The conflict was largely depoliticized during the triumvirate's rule,^[56] but its collapse caused relations between the two parties to grow increasingly strained during Mahmud's fifteen-year supreme rule, and even more so following 1473 due to the drastic reforms issued by Mahmud. Plots arose among the Deccanis to usurp him from power, and the nobles forged a treasonous document purportedly from him. This was in part motivated by the absence of Yusuf Adil Shah, leader of the Afaqis faction and then Governor of Daulatabad.^[57] Muhammad Shah III Lashkari, the Sultan, drunkenly ordered him executed on 5 April 1481.^[58] The Bahmani Sultanate fell into great disarray following Mahmud's execution.^[58]

The Sultan later regretted his ill-thought-out decision and buried Mahmud Gawan, though still in a small tomb disproportionate to the authority his rank had held.^[59]^[58] The treasonable documents presented by the critics of Mahmud Gawan were the letters written to the Gajapati king Purushottamadeva of Orissa, claimed to have been written by Mahmud.^[60] They claimed the populace's dismay of the wretchedness of the Sultan, and invited Purushottamadeva to invade the kingdom.^[61] Though Mahmud asserted that the letter was forged, his statement was not given merit as the Sultan Muhammad Shah III was himself wary of Mahmud's growing power and influence. Thus, despite his old age, he was executed. One year after the death of Mahmud, the Sultan also died at the age of 29. It was said that Mahmud haunted the Sultan during the last days of his life as he used to scream on his death bed that Mahmud was slaying him.^[62]^[63] Malik Hasan Bahri, a Deccani who was the chief architect of the plan to have Mahmud executed,^[57] succeeded him as Prime minister upon the accession of Mahmood Shah Bahmani II to the throne.^[63]

The disorder caused by Mahmud's death led to the independence of the Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Berar Sultanates in 1490, and the Bidar Sultanate in 1492.^[52]^[64] Yusuf Adil Shah, the founder of the Bijapur Sultanate, which would grow to be the largest Deccan Sultanate, was likely himself a former Georgian slave of Mahmud Gawan^[65] and was the leader of the Afaqis during the last years of Mahmud's life.^[38]

References

Notes

^ A noble's rank corresponded to the revenue he was expected to raise and the number of horsemen he was required to maintain for the crown.^[11]

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Eaton 2008, p. 65.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Chandra 2014, pp. 146–148.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 276–277.
^ Sherwani 1942, pp. 22–23.
^ Sherwani 1942, pp. 24–25.
^ Eaton 2008, p. 62.
^ Sherwani 1942, pp. 25–27.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Eaton 2008, pp. 59–62.
^ Eaton 2008, p. 63.
^ ^a ^b Sherwani 1942, pp. 72–73.
^ Eaton 2008, pp. 65n.
^ Sherwani 1942, p. 74.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 258.
^ ^a ^b Chandra 2014, p. 147.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 276.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 293–294.
^ ^a ^b Yazdani 1947, p. 9.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 291–292.
^ ^a ^b ^c Sherwani 1946, pp. 294–296.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 308.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 304–308.
^ ^a ^b Sherwani 1946, pp. 284–286.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 296.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 322.
^ Haig 1925, p. 415.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 310.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 279.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 280–283.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 283.
^ Haig 1925, p. 413.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 286.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 303.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 304.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 305.
^ Sherwani 1946, pp. 305–308.
^ ^a ^b Yazdani 1947, pp. 8–10.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 316.
^ ^a ^b Haig 1925, p. 416.
^ Haig 1925, p. 417.
^ Haig 1925, p. 419.
^ ^a ^b Sherwani 1946, p. 326.
^ Sherwani 1942, p. 196.
^ Sherwani 1942, pp. 195–197.
^ Sherwani 1942, p. 22.
^ Sherwani 1942, p. 197.
^ Eaton 2008, p. 66.
^ Yazdani 1947, p. 92.
^ ^a ^b Eaton 2008, p. 67.
^ Yazdani 1947, pp. 96–100.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 299.
^ Yazdani 1947, pp. 92–93.
^ ^a ^b Chandra 2014, p. 148.
^ von Pochhammer 2005, p. 219.
^ Subrahmanyam 1996, p. 75.
^ Sherwani 1942, p. 195.
^ Sherwani 1946, p. 294.
^ ^a ^b Haig 1925, pp. 419–420.
^ ^a ^b ^c Haque 1980, p. 39.
^ Yazdani 1947, p. 192.
^ Shyam 1966, p. 25.
^ Haig 1925, p. 420.
^ Hasan 2002, p. 269.
^ ^a ^b Haig 1925, p. 422.
^ Yazdani 1947, p. 11.
^ Subrahmanyam 2012, p. 101.

Sources

Chandra, Satish (2014). History of Medieval India 800–1700 A.D. Orient BlackSwan. ISBN 9788125032267.
Eaton, Richard M. (2008). "Mahmud Gawan (1411–1481)". A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761 : Eight Indian Lives. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71627-7. OCLC 226973152.
Haig, Wolseley (1925). Cambridge History Of India Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press.
Haque, Mohammed Anwarul (1980). Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. Punthi Pustak.
Hasan, M. (2002). History of Islam (2 Vols. Set). Adam Publishers. p. 269. ISBN 8174350195. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
von Pochhammer, Wilhelm (2005). India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied. p. 219. ISBN 9788177647150.
Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1946). The Bahmanis of the Deccan – An Objective Study. Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan. OCLC 3971780.
Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1942). Mahmud Gawan: The Great Bahmani Wazir. Kitabistan, Allahabad. OCLC 5812186.
Shyam, Radhey (1966). The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 25. ISBN 8120826515.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1996). Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World. Variorum. p. 75. ISBN 9780860785071.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2012). Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674071681.
Yazdani, Ghulam (1947). Bidar, Its History and Monuments. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9788120810716.

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 | name              = Mahmud Gawan
 | title             = ''[[Amir of amirs|Amir of Amirs]]''{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}}
-| native_name       = Khwaja Mahmud Gilani
+| native_name       = [[Khwaja]] Mahmud Gilani
 | birth_date        = 1411
 | birth_place       = Gawan, Biya-pis
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 | death_place       = [[Bidar]], [[Bahmani Sultanate]]
 | succession        = Prime Minister
+| predecessor       = Jahan Turk
 | successor         = [[Malik Hasan Bahri]]
 | issue             = {{hlist|Ali|Abdullah|Alaf Khan}}
@@ Line 23: / Line 24: @@
 == Origins ==
+Mahmud Gawan was born in 1411, in the village of Gawan to a family of imperial ministers of a kingdom in [[Gilan]], in northern Persia. His name at birth was Imadu'd-din Mahmud, according to the Persian historian [[Firishta]], and his father's name was Jalalu'd-din Muhammad. Mahmud's family was of high rank, and according to his own account had included viziers in the city of [[Rasht]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=22–23}} Political intrigues against Mahmud's family, instigated by a minister, Hajji Muhammad, and the commander of the Gilani forces, Syed Ali, succeeded in undermining the family's status, and at some point before 1440, both Mahmud and his brother, Shihabu'd-din Ahmad,{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=24–25}} left Gilan on the insistence of their mother.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=62}} Mahmud had three sons, Abdullah, Ali, and Alaf Khan, and a brother who went to Mecca, all of whom were largely uninvolved in his later life in the Deccan.{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=25–27}}
-Mahmud Gawan hailed from [[Gilan]] in Persia, born into a family of imperial ministers. He had three sons, Abdullah, Ali, and Alaf Khan, and a brother who went to Mecca, all of whom were largely uninvolved in his later life in the Deccan.{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=25–27}} Mahmud eventually left his homeland due to discontentment with its political environment. He toured various regions of Asia, finding success as a merchant and also developing an affinity for learning.  He arrived in the Indian subcontinent in the year 1453 (aged 42), at the port of [[Dabhol]], motivated by financial opportunities offered by the rich courts of South Asia. Additionally, South Asia was a lucrative market for goods that he intended to sell. Though he intended to travel to [[Delhi]], Mahmud first visited [[Bidar]] in order to pay homage to a prominent [[Sufi]] [[Dervish]] there. He subsequently gained an audience with the Bahmani Sultan [[Ahmad Shah II Bahmani|Ahmad Shah II]].{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}} The Bahmani Sultanate had consistently favoured high-born [[Persianate]] men of talent,{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}} and hence Mahmud was well-received and made a noble of the Bahmani court, beginning his political career in the Deccan.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}}
+Over the next decade and more Mahmud travelled through Southwest Asia and as far west as [[Anatolia]] and Egypt,{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}} becoming a successful merchant, in horses as well as other goods,{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}}{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} and taking opportunites for study in Cairo and Damascus.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=63}} He was offered ministerial positions in the courts of [[Khurasan]] and Iraq during these years, but declined them.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}} In 1453, aged 42, he came to the port of [[Dabhol]], hoping to sell horses to the Bahmani Sultanate,{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}} and also planning to meet Shah Muhibbu’llah, a holy man living in [[Bidar]], the Bahmani capital, and then to travel to Delhi.{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=72–73}} He met first with the governor of Dabhol, and then traveled to Bidar. The Bahmani sultans of the era actively recruited Persians both as scholars and administrators, and Sultan [[Ahmad Shah II]] received Mahmud favourably.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=59–62}}
 ==Career==
-After introducing himself to the Bahmani court of [[Ahmad Shah II Bahmani|Ahmad Shah II]], he was given an officer position, and later in 1457, given charge of an elite formation of cavalry after he had suppressed a minor rebellion.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} Greatly impressed with his military aptitude, Sultan [[Humayun Shah]] had taken him in his service and appointed him as ''Wakil-us-Sultanat'', or Chief Minister following Ahmad Shah II's death. In Humayun Shah's accession speech, he claims he appointed Mahmud due to him fitting the role of "one who should be clothed with the outward attributes of truth and good faith and who should inwardly be free from vices and vanity". In addition to his main role, Mahmud Gawan was given control of military affairs and was presented with the titles of "[[taraf (subdivision)|taraf]]dar of [[Bijapur]]"{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=258}} and "Prince of Merchants" (''Malik-ut-Tujjar''){{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=147}}{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} After Humayun's death, he became one of the guardians of the underage Sultan [[Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III|Nizam Shah]] during his regency. This [[triumvirate]] regency council would consist of Mahmud, Jahan Turk, and the [[queen mother]] of Nizam Shah.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=276}} It worked well in depoliticizing the foreigner-Deccani conflict and deterring foreign invasions through its "unity of action" policy, which saw the three regents constantly unified on the best course of action and conduct. This policy would last until the death of Nizam Shah in 1463, which laid the course for the coming internal strife which would eventually see Mahmud's execution.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=293–294}}
+After introducing himself to the Bahmani court of [[Ahmad Shah II Bahmani|Ahmad Shah II]], Mahmud was made a noble with a rank of 1,000,{{efn|A noble's rank corresponded to the revenue he was expected to raise and the number of horsemen he was required to maintain for the crown.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=65n}}}} and gave up his plans to travel onwards.{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=72–73}} In 1457, he was given charge of an elite formation of cavalry after he led the suppression of a minor rebellion of two family members of the sultan.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}}{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=74}} Impressed with his military aptitude, Sultan [[Humayun Shah]] took him into his service upon Ahmad Shah II's death in 1459 and appointed him as ''Wakil-us-Sultanat'', or Chief Minister following Ahmad Shah II's death. In Humayun Shah's accession speech, he states he appointed Mahmud as he fit the role of "one who should be clothed with the outward attributes of truth and good faith and who should inwardly be free from vices and vanity". In addition to his main role, Mahmud was given control of military affairs and was made [[tarafdar]] of [[Bijapur]]{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=258}} and "Prince of Merchants" (''Malik-ut-Tujjar'').{{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=147}}{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} After Humayun's death, he became one of the guardians of the underage Sultan [[Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III|Nizam Shah]] until his majority. This regency council consisted of Mahmud, the mother of Nizam Shah, and a noble named Jahan Turk.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=276}} It worked well in depoliticizing the conflict between the two noble factions, the Deccanis — those native to the Deccan—and the foreigners, through the triumvirate's policy of appeasing these factions. It also deterred foreign invasions through its "unity of action" policy, which saw the regents consistently in agreement on the best course of action. This latter policy lasted until the death of Nizam Shah in 1463, and the cessation of it was the catalyst for increased factional strife.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=293–294}}
-Three years after the accession of [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad III]], when he was fourteen years of age, the triumvirate regency came to a forced end with the murder of one of its members, Jahan Turk, ordered by the queen mother herself. Jahan Turk had been a disturbing force in the Sultanate by giving the new nobility positions in place of the old aristocracy, and had been disliked for his rumoured embezzling of funds from the royal treasury. His insistence on having his way had forced Mahmud to flee to the frontier provinces of the kingdom, and as Mahmud was "the moderating element in the Triumvirate", the order of the court quickly decomposed, and as Jahan Turk was the imposer of this chaos, the queen mother had him killed.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=292}}
+The triumvirate continued to rule after the accession of [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad III]], as he too was a minor. When he was fourteen years of age, the triumvirate regency came to a forced end when Jahan Turk was ordered murdered by the queen mother herself. Jahan Turk had been a disturbing force in the Sultanate by giving the new nobility positions in place of the old aristocracy, thus favouring the former and alienating the latter, and had been disliked for his rumoured embezzling of funds from the royal treasury and abuse of power. Through his influence and insistence on having his way, Jahan Turk sent Mahmud to administer the frontier provinces of the kingdom, and as Mahmud was "the moderating element in the Triumvirate", the stability of the state quickly collapsed. Jahan Turk was able to greatly increase his power with the absence of Mahmud, becoming the de facto ruler, and the queen mother, who took issue with this, had him killed then in 1466.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=9}}{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=291–292}}
-The queen mother had retired from political affairs with the dissolution of the triumvirate, furthering Mahmud Gawan's lack of diplomatic and intellectual competition. A ceremony was held, where he was entrusted with the general supervision of all provinces (tarafs) of the Sultanate and given the title of Prime minister by the queen mother in 1466, soon after the triumvirate's dissolution.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} He was given the formal title of “Lord of the habitors of the Globe, Secretary of the Royal Mansion, Deputy of the Realm", which he was addressed as in court documents.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=294–295}} Following Mahmud's many ambitious campaigns and territorial acquisitions, in 1473, he himself also expanded the number of tarafs, ruled by a ''tarafdar'', from four to eight, due to the accrued administrative burden and expansion of the Sultanate, in part caused by his own pursuits. He also instituted reforms of fixing the payment and obligations of the nobles and limiting the provincial governor's control to the assignment of only one fort.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=8–10}} These reforms would not be taken well by many of the nobles, whose power had been significantly curtailed.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=419}}
+The queen mother retired from political affairs with the dissolution of the triumvirate, furthering Mahmud Gawan's lack of diplomatic and intellectual competition. A ceremony was held soon after the triumvirate's dissolution, where he was entrusted with the general supervision of all provinces (tarafs) of the Sultanate and given the title of Prime minister by the queen mother in 1466,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=294–296}} a title formerly held by Jahan Turk,{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=9}} ensuing Mahmud's supreme rule as the de facto ruler of the Sultanate.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}}{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=294–296}} He was given the formal title of “Lord of the habitors of the Globe, Secretary of the Royal Mansion, Deputy of the Realm", which he was addressed as in court documents.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=294–296}}
-Mahmud Gawan's foreign policy caused a drastic shift in the diplomatic atmosphere of South India; he temporarily allied his state with [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]],{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=308}} who had been rivals of the Bahmanis since the Sultanate's inception, and established a friendship with [[Mahmud Khalji]] of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], with mutual envoys sent despite three past invasions of the kingdom by Khalji.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=307–308}}
+Mahmud Gawan's foreign policy caused a drastic shift in the diplomatic atmosphere of South India; he temporarily allied his state with [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] around 1470,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=308}} who had been rivals of the Bahmanis since the Sultanate's inception, and established a friendship with [[Mahmud Khalji]] of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]] around 1468, with mutual envoys sent despite three past invasions of the kingdom by Khalji.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=304–308}} He also strengthened diplomatic ties with [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], whose ruler [[Mahmud Begada]] helped win these conflicts with Malwa.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=284–286}}
-===Campaigns===
+===Campaigns and reforms===
-Mahmud Gawan partook in many campaigns and enlarged the state to an extent never achieved before, with the state stretching from the [[Arabian Sea|Arabian]] to [[Bay of Bengal|Bengal]] seas{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=296}} through the annexation of the [[Konkan]], the easternmost portion of [[Andhra]], [[Goa]], and the forming of a protectoral relationship with the [[Khandesh Sultanate]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=322}} The capture of the Konkan would virtually cease the attacks on Muslim pilgrims and would grant the Bahmanis dominance over trade in the eastern Arabian Sea.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=415}}
+Mahmud Gawan took part in and led many campaigns and enlarged the state to an extent never achieved before, with the Sultanate stretching from the [[Arabian Sea]] to the [[Bay of Bengal]]{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=296}} through the annexation of the [[Konkan]], the easternmost portion of [[Andhra]], [[Goa]], and the forming of a protectoral relationship with the [[Khandesh Sultanate]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=322}} The capture of the Konkan virtually ceased the attacks on Muslim pilgrims and would grant the Bahmanis increased revenue in trade.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=415}}{{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=147}}{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=310}}
+[[File:Raichur Doab.jpg|thumb|A map depicting the states of southern India in the 15th century]]
-Shortly after the death of [[Humayun Shah]] and the accession of the boy monarch [[Nizam Shah]], the rulers of [[Orissa]], the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapatis]], saw the Bahmani Sultanate as weak, which was typical in the presence of a regency. The Gajapati Emperor, [[Kapilendra Deva]], saw fit to [[Gajapati invasion of Bidar|invade the Bahmani kingdom]] and reached as far as ten miles from the capital, [[Bidar]]. Mahmud, in addition with Jahan Turk, who was a member of the triumvirate regency, the [[queen mother]], and Nizam Shah himself, led an army against the Gajapatis and drew them back from Bidar.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=279}}
+When the regency council took control after the accession of [[Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III|Nizam Shah]], the rulers of [[Orissa]], the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapatis]], saw the Bahmani Sultanate as weak, which was typical in the presence of a regency. The Gajapati Emperor, [[Kapilendra Deva]], saw fit to [[Gajapati invasion of Bidar|invade the Bahmani kingdom]] and reached as far as ten miles from the capital, [[Bidar]]. Mahmud, in addition with the other triumvirs and Nizam Shah himself, led an army against the Gajapatis and pushed them back from Bidar.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=279}}
-A year later, in 1462, the ruler of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], [[Mahmud Khalji]], in cooperation with the ruler of Khandesh and some other states, again invaded the Bahmani Sultanate. In the confrontation between the joint regency and the opposing side, an initial advantage turned into an unexpected defeat, and the party was forced to retreat.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=280–283}} The court was temporarily moved to [[Firozabad]], and Mahmud ordered the queen to delegate [[Bidar Fort]] to a different noble. Khalji began laying siege to the capital,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=283}} and advanced to the [[citadel]] after seventeen days,{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=413}} but was deterred not long after by a joint army of Mahmud's and the king of [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], [[Mahmud Begada]], whom Mahmud and the queen had invited for assistance. Mahmud Begada, going by way of Malwa through his insistence not to enter the Deccan, along with Mahmud Gawan, successfully forced Khalji of Malwa to retire to his home via [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=284}}
+A year later, in 1462, the ruler of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], [[Mahmud Khalji]], in cooperation with the ruler of Khandesh and some other states, again invaded the Bahmani Sultanate. In the confrontation between the joint regency and the opposing side, an initial tactical advantage for the former turned into an unexpected defeat, and the Bahmani forces were forced to retreat.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=280–283}} Following this, the court was temporarily moved to Firozabad, and Mahmud ordered the queen to delegate [[Bidar Fort]], the fort protecting the capital, to a different noble. Khalji began laying siege to Bidar,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=283}} and advanced to the [[citadel]] after seventeen days,{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=413}} but was forced into raising the siege not long after by the threat of the advancing joint army of Mahmud's and the king of [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], [[Mahmud Begada]], whom Mahmud and the queen had asked for assistance, to the north, and Jahan Turk to the south. Mahmud Begada, going by way of Malwa through his insistence not to enter the Deccan, as he wished to be closer to his homeland in case of internal conflict, along with Mahmud Gawan, successfully forced Khalji of Malwa to flee to his home country by way of [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]], as the way north to Malwa was blocked by the Bahmani and Gujarati forces. In his flight, Khalji's already wounded army was nearly eradicated by [[Gonds|Gondi]] attacks and attrition.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=284–286}}
-This occurrence was near-repeated the following year. Mahmud Khalji again raided far into the Sultanate, as far as Fathabad, but was repelled following a second instance of assistance from Mahmud Begada and a confrontation accompanied by Mahmud Gawan.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=286}}
+Mahmud Khalji again invaded the following year, reaching Fathabad, but was repelled by a force that included Mahmud Gawan, again with the assistance of Mahmud Begada.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=286}}
-A third invasion by the Khalji of Malwa was known to be looming in 1468, and in anticipation Mahmud Gawan led forces near Khandesh along with those of the recurring ally of Gujarat.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=303}} The main army of Berar under Yusuf Turk besieged [[Kingdom of Kherla|Kherla]], then subordinate to Malwa. The Bahmanis had taken the citadel when two defenders deceived the general such that they were able to murder him and bring the Khalji's forces down toward the city,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=304}} though a diverting of Mahmud's forces had the opposite effect and ended the conflict.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=305}} Its concluding treaty saw Kherla become a full territory of Malwa, while the Bahmanis retained all former lands, and reversed the diplomatic atmosphere of the two states to permanent friendship despite the past invasions.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=305–308}}
+A third invasion by the Khalji of Malwa was known to be looming in 1468, and in anticipation Mahmud Gawan led forces near Khandesh, again in alliance with Gujarat.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=303}} The main army of Berar, a Bahmani taraf, under the Bahmani general Yusuf Turk, besieged [[Kingdom of Kherla|Kherla]], then subordinate to Malwa. The Bahmanis had taken the citadel when two defenders deceived Yusuf Turk and murdered him, bringing the Khalji's forces down toward the city as a result,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=304}} though a diverting of Mahmud's forces in the direction of the Khaljis's intimitaded him to retreat, ending the conflict with no clear victor.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=305}} Its concluding treaty saw Kherla become a full territory of Malwa, while the Bahmanis retained all former lands, and reversed the diplomatic atmosphere of the two states to permanent friendship despite the past invasions.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=305–308}}
-Mahmud embarked on a successful campaign against the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in 1469, where he conquered the city of [[Kanjeeveram]] and the entire [[Konkan]].{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=8–10}} He captured [[Goa]] and [[Dabhol]] in 1472,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=316}} two of the most prosperous ports of the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}} [[Virupaksha Raya II|Virupaksha]] of Vijayanagara tried to send forces to reclaim his losses in the Konkan in 1474, and attempted to lay siege to Goa,{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=416}} but was deterred by an army led by Mahmud alongside [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad III]]. Mahmud and his forces attacked and laid siege to [[Belgaum]], and successfully took the city. The [[raja]] of Belgaum, in exchange for keeping his life, agreed to let his city be annexed to Mahmud.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=417}}
+Mahmud embarked on a successful campaign against the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in 1469, conquering the city of [[Kanjeeveram]] and the entire [[Konkan]].{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=8–10}} In 1472 he captured [[Goa]] and [[Dabhol]],{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=316}} two of the most prosperous ports of the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}} [[Virupaksha Raya II|Virupaksha]] of Vijayanagara tried to send forces to reclaim his losses in the Konkan in 1474, and attempted to lay siege to Goa,{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=416}} but was deterred by an army led by Mahmud alongside [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad III]]. Mahmud and his forces attacked and laid siege to [[Belgaum]], and successfully took the city. The [[raja]] of Belgaum, in exchange for keeping his life, agreed to let his city be annexed to Mahmud.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=417}}
+In 1473, following Mahmud's many campaigns and territorial acquisitions, he reorganised the tarafs out of both the new and old territory held by the state, increasing the number from four to eight. This was done due to the increased adminstrative burden and the expansion of the Sultanate's territory, both partly due to his own policies. He also instituted reforms to set and standardise the payment and obligations of the nobles and to limit the provincial governor's control to the assignment of only one fort.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|pp=146–148}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=8–10}} These reforms would not be taken well by many of the nobles, whose power had been significantly curtailed.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=419}}
 ===Poetry and letters===
-Mahmud Gawan wrote poetry and letters, of which 148 are surviving.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} His collection of letters, called the ''Riyazul-Insha'',{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=326}} included correspondence between many heads of state of the era, who greatly respected him,{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=196}} including [[Mehmed II]], in which the Sultan addressed him as “Spreader of the Board of kindness and goodness, the Right Hand of the Bahmani State, Trustee of the Religion of Muhammad",{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=195–197}} [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] and [[Husayn Bayqara]] of the [[Timurid Empire]], and [[Qaitbay]] of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=22}} He also corresponded with Persian poet [[Jami]],{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=197}} in which his dominions were called the "envy of [[Rum (endonym)|Rum]] itself", and corresponded with and invited to the Deccan many other Persian poets, including [[Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi]] and [[Jalal al-Din Davani]].{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=66}} These western contacts helped to make known the Deccan and Bahmani kingdom to the western and Islamic world, something which had been crucial to past Sultans but was expanded under Mahmud's ministership. [[Haroon Khan Sherwani]] calls him "one of the most prominent Persian writers of the period."{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=326}}
+Mahmud Gawan wrote poetry and letters, of which 148 are surviving.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=65}} His collection of letters, called the ''Riyazul-Insha'',{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=326}} included correspondence between many heads of state of the era, who greatly respected him,{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=196}} including [[Mehmed II]], in which the Sultan addressed him as “Spreader of the Board of kindness and goodness, the Right Hand of the Bahmani State, Trustee of the Religion of Muhammad",{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|pp=195–197}} [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] and [[Husayn Bayqara]] of the [[Timurid Empire]], and [[Qaitbay]] of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=22}} He also corresponded with Persian poet [[Jami]],{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=197}} in which his dominions were called the "envy of [[Rum (endonym)|Rum]] itself", and corresponded with and invited to the Deccan many other poets, including [[Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi]] and [[Jalal al-Din Davani]].{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=66}} These western contacts helped to make known the Deccan and Bahmani kingdom to the western and Islamic world, something which had been desirable for past Sultans but was expanded under Mahmud's ministership. Historian [[Haroon Khan Sherwani]] calls him "one of the most prominent Persian writers of the period."{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=326}}
 ===Mahmud Gawan Madrasa===
 {{main article|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa}}
 [[File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|thumb|[[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]] was built by Mahmud Gawan, a [[vizier]] of the Bahmani Sultanate as the center of learning in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]].]]
-Mahmud built a [[madrasa]] in [[Bidar]] which is known as the [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]]. The complex stands at the centre of Bidar's old town, and was completed in 1472.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=92}} The extensive library carried a collection of 3,000 manuscripts.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=67}}
+Mahmud built a [[madrasa]] in [[Bidar]] which is known as the [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]]. The complex stands at the centre of Bidar's old town, and was completed in 1472.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=92}} The extensive library included a collection of 3,000 manuscripts, a large amount for the era.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=67}} It was a three-storied building, each floor identical in structure, with two minarets, a mosque, library, labs, lecture halls and dormitories, which overlooked a courtyard with arches on either side.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=96–100}} Historian [[Richard M. Eaton]] describes it as an "extraordinary place", with "arches and colorful glazed tiles recalling Timurid Central Asia, and its minaret and domes reminiscent of Mamluk Egypt".{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=67}}
-The madrasa had a length of 242 feet and a width of 222 feet. It was a three-storied building, each floor identical in structure, with two minarets, a mosque, library, labs, lecture halls and dormitories, which overlooked an expansive courtyard with arches on either side.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=96–100}} Its domes were reminiscent of those of [[Samarkand]] during the [[Timurid Renaissance]].{{sfn|Eaton|2008|p=67}}
-The structure significantly deteriorated in the years following its inception. The building was damaged by a gunpowder explosion{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=299}} and thunder storm in 1696, which collectively rid it of half of the southern wing and half its front, and it was consistently neglected and left to decay through the elements. This neglect and its ruinous state caused the madrasa to become a public dumping ground for the people's filth and rubbish. The building later underwent a significant cleanup and renovation after being taken over by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] in 1914 in an effort to give it a more presentable state.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=92–93}}
+The structure significantly deteriorated in the years following its inception. The building was damaged by a gunpowder explosion{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=299}} and thunder storm in 1696, which collectively rid it of half of the southern wing and half its front, and it was consistently neglected and left to decay through the elements. This neglect and its ruinous state caused the madrasa to become a public dumping ground for the people's filth and rubbish. The building later underwent a significant cleanup and renovation after being taken over by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] in 1914 in an effort to improve its appearance.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|pp=92–93}}
 ===Deccani-Afaqi conflict and execution===
-There existed a divide between the two factions of the Deccanis, who were of local origin, and the Afaqis (alternatively ''gharibs'' or ''Pardesi''), who were of foreign origin.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=148}} The divisions included sectarian religious divisions where the Afaqis were looked upon as heretics by the Sunnis as the former were Shi'as.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&dq=deccanis+looked+upon+empire&pg=PA219 |title= India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent |author= Wilhelm von Pochhammer |date= 2005 |publisher= Allied |page= 219 |isbn= 9788177647150 }}</ref> Historian [[Richard M. Eaton]] cites a linguistic divide where the Deccanis spoke Deccani while the Afaqis favored the Persian language.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NUKGAAAAIAAJ&q=afaqis++merchants |title= Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World |page=75 |publisher= Variorum |date=1996 |author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |isbn= 9780860785071 }}</ref> Mahmud, as he hailed from Persia and was likely Shi'a himself,{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=195}} was a Pardesi, so he faced many challenges. The conflict was largely depoliticized during the triumvirate's rule,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=294}} but its collapse caused relations between the two parties to grow increasingly stigmatized during Mahmud's fifteen-year supreme rule, and even more so following 1473 consequent of the drastic reforms issued by Mahmud. Plots arose to usurp his regime by the Deccanis, and the nobles forged a treasonous document purportedly from him. This was in part motivated by the absence of [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], leader of the Afaqis faction and then Governor of [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]].{{sfn|Haig|1925|pp=419–420}} [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari]], the Sultan, drunkenly ordered him executed on 5 April 1481.{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}} "With him departed all the cohesion and power of the Bahmani Sultan."<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=106–108}}</ref> The Bahmani Sultanate fell into great disarray following Mahmud's execution.{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}}
+There existed a divide between the two factions of the Deccanis, who were of local origin, and the Afaqis (alternatively ''gharibs'' or ''Pardesi''), who were of foreign origin.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=148}} Reasons for the divisions included the Afaqis' Shi'a beliefs, which were seen as heretical by the Deccanis, and their language: the Afaqis spoke favoring Persian rather than Deccani.{{sfn|von Pochhammer|2005|p=219}}{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1996|p=75}} Mahmud, as he hailed from Persia and was likely Shi'a himself,{{sfn|Sherwani|1942|p=195}} was a Pardesi, so he faced many challenges. The conflict was largely depoliticized during the triumvirate's rule,{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=294}} but its collapse caused relations between the two parties to grow increasingly strained during Mahmud's fifteen-year supreme rule, and even more so following 1473 due to the drastic reforms issued by Mahmud. Plots arose among the Deccanis to usurp him from power, and the nobles forged a treasonous document purportedly from him. This was in part motivated by the absence of [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], leader of the Afaqis faction and then Governor of [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]].{{sfn|Haig|1925|pp=419–420}} [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari]], the Sultan, drunkenly ordered him executed on 5 April 1481.{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}} The Bahmani Sultanate fell into great disarray following Mahmud's execution.{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}}
-The Sultan later regretted his ill-thought-out decision and buried Mahmud Gawan, though still in a small tomb disproportionate to the authority his rank had held.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=192}}{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}} The treasonable documents presented by the critics of Mahmud Gawan were the letters written to the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapati]] king [[Purushottamadeva]] of [[Odisha|Orissa]], claimed to have been written by Mahmud.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5C4hBqKdkEsC|title=The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar|author=Radhey Shyam|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|page=25|year=1966|isbn=8120826515}}</ref> They claimed the populace's dismay of the wretchedness of the Sultan, and invited Purushottamadeva to invade the kingdom.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=420}} Though Mahmud asserted that the letter was forged, his statement was not given value as the Sultan Muhammad Shah III was himself wary of Mahmud's growing power and influence. Thus, despite his old age, he was executed. One year after the death of Mahmud, the Sultan also died at the age of 29. It was said that Mahmud haunted the Sultan during the last days of his life as he used to scream on his death bed that Mahmud was slaying him.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbUB_ACAR5QC&pg=PA269|title=HISTORY OF ISLAM (2 Vols. Set)|author=Prof. M. Hasan|publisher=Adam Publishers|page=269|year= 2002|isbn=8174350195|access-date=2020-09-21}}</ref> [[Malik Hasan Bahri]], a Deccani who was the chief architect of the plan to have Mahmud executed,{{sfn|Haig|1925|pp=419–420}} succeeded him as Prime minister upon the accession of [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II]] to the throne.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=422}}
+The Sultan later regretted his ill-thought-out decision and buried Mahmud Gawan, though still in a small tomb disproportionate to the authority his rank had held.{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=192}}{{sfn|Haque|1980|p=39}} The treasonable documents presented by the critics of Mahmud Gawan were the letters written to the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapati]] king [[Purushottamadeva]] of [[Odisha|Orissa]], claimed to have been written by Mahmud.{{sfn|Shyam|1966|p=25}} They claimed the populace's dismay of the wretchedness of the Sultan, and invited Purushottamadeva to invade the kingdom.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=420}} Though Mahmud asserted that the letter was forged, his statement was not given merit as the Sultan Muhammad Shah III was himself wary of Mahmud's growing power and influence. Thus, despite his old age, he was executed. One year after the death of Mahmud, the Sultan also died at the age of 29. It was said that Mahmud haunted the Sultan during the last days of his life as he used to scream on his death bed that Mahmud was slaying him.{{sfn|Hasan|2002|p=269}}{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=422}} [[Malik Hasan Bahri]], a Deccani who was the chief architect of the plan to have Mahmud executed,{{sfn|Haig|1925|pp=419–420}} succeeded him as Prime minister upon the accession of [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II]] to the throne.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=422}}
 The disorder caused by Mahmud's death led to the independence of the [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]], and [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]] Sultanates in 1490, and the [[Bidar Sultanate]] in 1492.{{sfn|Chandra|2014|p=148}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=11}} [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], the founder of the Bijapur Sultanate, which would grow to be the largest [[Deccan Sultanates|Deccan Sultanate]], was likely himself a former Georgian slave of Mahmud Gawan{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|2012|p=101}} and was the leader of the Afaqis during the last years of Mahmud's life.{{sfn|Haig|1925|p=416}}
 ==References==
+===Notes===
+{{notelist | 30em}}
 ===Citations===
 {{Reflist}}
@@ Line 75: / Line 82: @@
 *{{Cite book |last=Haig |first=Wolseley |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46989 |title=Cambridge History Of India Vol. 2 |date=1925 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Wolseley Haig}}
 *{{cite book |last=Haque |first=Mohammed Anwarul |url=https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980 |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak }}
+*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbUB_ACAR5QC&pg=PA269|title=History of Islam (2 Vols. Set)|first=M.|last=Hasan|publisher=Adam Publishers|page=269|year=2002|isbn=8174350195|access-date=2020-09-21}}
+*{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&dq=deccanis+looked+upon+empire&pg=PA219 |title= India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent |first= Wilhelm |last= von Pochhammer |date= 2005 |publisher= Allied |page= 219 |isbn= 9788177647150 }}
 *{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.68551|title=The Bahmanis of the Deccan – An Objective Study|last=Sherwani|first=Haroon Khan|year=1946|author-link=Haroon Khan Sherwani|publisher=Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan|oclc=3971780}}
 *{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54103|title=Mahmud Gawan: The Great Bahmani Wazir|last=Sherwani|first=Haroon Khan|year=1942|publisher=Kitabistan, Allahabad|oclc=5812186}}
-*{{cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr94lB3zWdkC |year=2012|publisher=Harvard University Press |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |isbn=9780674071681}}
+*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5C4hBqKdkEsC|title=The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar|first=Radhey|last=Shyam|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|page=25|year=1966|isbn=8120826515}}
+*{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NUKGAAAAIAAJ&q=afaqis++merchants |title= Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World |page=75 |publisher= Variorum |date=1996 |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |last=Subrahmanyam |isbn= 9780860785071 }}
+*{{cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr94lB3zWdkC |year=2012|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674071681}}
 *{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279710/page/n1|title=Bidar, Its History and Monuments|last=Yazdani|first=Ghulam|year=1947|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9788120810716|author-link=Ghulam Yazdani}}

v t e Bahmani Sultanate
Sultans	Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah Mohammed Shah I Mujahid Shah Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah Ahmad Shah I Wali ‘Alau’d-din Ahmad Shah Humayun Shah Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III Muhammad Shah III Lashkari Mahmood Shah Bahmani II
Architecture	Bahmani Tombs Chand Minar Chor Gumbad Haft Gumbaz Jama Mosque, Golconda Jama Mosque, Kalaburagi Mahmud Gawan Madrasa Solapur Bhuikot Killa
Tarafdars	Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk Mahmud Gawan Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I Malik Hasan Bahri Qasim Barid I Quli Qutb Shah Yusuf Adil Shah

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