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Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the poison dart frog, and curare (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the indigenous peoples of South America.^[1]

History

Poisoned arrows have featured in mythology, notably the Greek story of Heracles slaying the centaur Nessus using arrows poisoned with the blood of the Lernaean Hydra. The Greek hero Odysseus poisons his arrows with hellebore in Homer's Odyssey. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homer's epic about the Trojan War, the Iliad, in which both Achaeans and Trojans used toxic arrows and spears.^[2] Poisoned arrows are referred to in the Book of Job in the Bible, descriptive of the sufferings experienced by the just man, Job.^[3]

The modern terms "toxic" and "toxin" derive from the ancient Greek word for "bow", toxon, from Old Persian *taxa-, "an arrow".^[4]^[5]^[6]

Poisoned arrows were used by real people in the ancient world, including the Gauls, ancient Romans, and the nomadic Scythians and Soanes. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used. Alexander the Great encountered poisoned projectiles during his conquest of India (probably dipped in the venom of Russell's viper) and the army of the Roman general Lucullus suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the Third Mithridatic War (1st century BC).^[2]

In the Kingdom of Kush, arrows were often poison-tipped. There is some indication that poisoned arrows were used in battle against the Romans from 27 BC to 22 BC.^[7]

Gregory of Tours claimed that during the reign of Emperor Maximus a Roman army was ambushed and destroyed by the Franks in Germany who used arrows poisoned in herb juices.^[8]

The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some Native Americans has also been documented.^[9]

Over the ages, Chinese warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances.^[10]

Varieties

Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:

Plant-based poisons

*Strychnos toxifera*, a plant commonly used in the preparation of curare

Curare is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain tubocurarine, curarine, quinine, protocurarine and related alkaloids. Most frequently it is derived from the bark of Strychnos toxifera, Strychnos guianensis (family Loganiaceae), Chondrodendron tomentosum or Sciadotenia toxifera (family Menispermaceae). Curare is a competitive antagonist that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the post synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction. It is a muscle relaxant that causes death by paralyzing the respiratory system, resulting in asphyxiation.
In Africa, many arrow poisons are made from plants that contain cardiac glycosides, such as Acokanthera (possessing ouabain), oleander (Nerium oleander), milkweeds (Asclepias), or Strophanthus, all of which are in the family Apocynaceae.^[1] Inee or onaye is a poison made from Strophanthus hispidus, which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin. It is used in sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of Togo and Cameroon.^[11] Certain species of the genus Mostuea (family Gelsemiaceae) are used as additives to arrow poisons (other ingredients unspecified). The toxic principles of Mostuea are alkaloids, not cardiac glycosides.^[12]
Poisoned arrows and blowgun darts are used widely in the jungle areas of Southeast Asia and South Asia for warfare and hunting. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the genera Antiaris, Strychnos and Strophanthus. Antiaris toxicaria, a tree of the mulberry and breadfruit family locally known as upas or ancar, is the most commonly used source for arrow poison in various ethnic groups in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] The fast-acting active ingredient (either antiarin, strychnine or strophanthin) attacks the central nervous system causing paralysis, convulsions and cardiac arrest.^[16]
Several species of Aconitum or "aconite," belonging to the buttercup family, have been used as arrow poisons. The Brokpa in Ladakh use Aconitum napellus on their arrows to hunt Siberian ibex; they were in use recently near lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan.^[17] The Ainu and Matagi of northern Japan used an Aconitum paste called surku (スㇽク) to hunt brown bear and sika, applied to arrows fired from either bows or amappo.^[18]^[19] It was also used by the Butias and Lepchas in Sikkim and Assam.^[20]^[21] The Chinese used Aconitum poisons both for hunting^[22] and warfare.^[23]
The Kalinago of the Caribbean used poisons made from the sap of the manchineel tree (Hippomane mancinella) or sandbox tree (Hura crepitans), both members of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.^[24]

Animal-based poisons

In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western Colombia dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of Phyllobates, a genus of poison dart frog. In northern Chocó Department, Phyllobates aurotaenia is used, while P. bicolor is used in Risaralda Department and southern Chocó. In Cauca Department, only P. terribilis is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the steroids in P. terribilis are powerful enough that it is sufficient to rub the dart on the back of the frog without killing it.
In the northern Kalahari Desert, the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the larva and pupae of beetles of the genus Diamphidia. It is applied to the arrow either by crushing the larva directly onto the arrow head and mixing it with plant sap to act as an binder, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals, including humans, can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.^[25]
In the United States, Native American tribes ^[which?] used venomous reptiles to provide the poisons required. In the Southwest United States, the Gila monster, being one of the only two venomous lizards, has been used as a source.^{[citation needed]}
There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes"^[26] (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a notched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked. Wounds with these weapons caused tetanus infection.

Preparation

The following 17th-century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:

In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild aconitum are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood.^[22]

References

^ ^a ^b "Curare". Archived from the original on 10 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
^ ^a ^b Mayor, Adrienne (2009). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Revised ed.). The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0.
^ Job 6:4
^ http://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp Archived 2012-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, A History of Biological Warfare from 300 B.C.E. to the Present, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toxic, Online Etymology Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/toxic, The Free Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
^ David Nicolle, Angus McBride. 1991. Rome's Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. p. 11-15
^ Gregory of Tours, A history of the Franks, Pantianos classics, 1916
^ Jones, David E (2007). Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1.
^ Sawyer, Ralph D (2007). The Tao of Deception: Unorthodox Warfare in Historic and Modern China. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07205-7.
^ "Definition of inee". Webster's International Dictionary. 1913. Archived from the original on 2012-02-16. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.
^ Darmadi, Hamid (30 March 2018). "Sumpit (Blowgun) as Traditional Weapons with Dayak High Protection". Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning. 3 (1): 113. doi:10.26737/jetl.v3i1.601.
^ Marinas, Amante P. Sr. (17 April 2012). Blowgun Techniques: The Definitive Guide to Modern and Traditional Blowgun Techniques. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9781462905546.
^ "Sumpit: The Filipino blowgun". The Manila Times. 24 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Poisoned arrows". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
^ St. George, George (1974). Soviet Deserts and Mountains. Amsterdam: Time-Life International.
^ 萱野 Kayano, 茂 Shigeru (January 1, 1978). アイヌの民具 Ainu no mingu (1st ed.). Japan: すずさわ書店 Suzusawa Shoten. ISBN 978-4795404014.
^ Peissel, Michel (1984). The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. London Harvill Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 9780002725149.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1854). Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist. London: John Murray. p. 168. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
^ Hutton, J. H. (July 1924). "The occurrence of the Blow-Gun in Assam". Man. 24. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 106. doi:10.2307/2788776. JSTOR 2788776.
^ ^a ^b Song, Yingxing; Sun, Shiou-chuan; Sun, E-tu Zen (1996). Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century: T'ien-kung K'ai-wu. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-486-29593-0.
^ Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. T’oung pao 7, pp. 226-227.
^ Jones, David E (2007). Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare. University of Texas Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
^ "How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows". Iziko Museums of Cape Town. Archived from the original on 2006-05-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
^ p. 141

[curare-1] "Curare". Archived from the original on 10 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-09.

[Mayor-2] Mayor, Adrienne (2009). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Revised ed.). The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0.

[3] Job 6:4

[4] ttp://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp Archived 2012-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, A History of Biological Warfare from 300 B.C.E. to the Present, Retrieved August 7, 2012.

[5] ttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toxic, Online Etymology Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.

[6] ttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/toxic, The Free Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.

[7] David Nicolle, Angus McBride. 1991. Rome's Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. p. 11-15

[8] Gregory of Tours, A history of the Franks, Pantianos classics, 1916

[9] Jones, David E (2007). Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1.

[10] Sawyer, Ralph D (2007). The Tao of Deception: Unorthodox Warfare in Historic and Modern China. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07205-7.

[11] "Definition of inee". Webster's International Dictionary. 1913. Archived from the original on 2012-02-16. Retrieved 2006-08-09.

[Quattrocchi-12] Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.

[Darmadi-13] Darmadi, Hamid (30 March 2018). "Sumpit (Blowgun) as Traditional Weapons with Dayak High Protection". Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning. 3 (1): 113. doi:10.26737/jetl.v3i1.601.

[Marinas-14] Marinas, Amante P. Sr. (17 April 2012). Blowgun Techniques: The Definitive Guide to Modern and Traditional Blowgun Techniques. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9781462905546.

[mt-15] "Sumpit: The Filipino blowgun". The Manila Times. 24 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2021.

[VandA-16] "Poisoned arrows". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-10.

[17] St. George, George (1974). Soviet Deserts and Mountains. Amsterdam: Time-Life International.

[kayano-18] 萱野 Kayano, 茂 Shigeru (January 1, 1978). アイヌの民具 Ainu no mingu (1st ed.). Japan: すずさわ書店 Suzusawa Shoten. ISBN 978-4795404014.

[19] Peissel, Michel (1984). The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. London Harvill Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 9780002725149.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[20] Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1854). Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist. London: John Murray. p. 168. Retrieved 2006-09-17.

[21] Hutton, J. H. (July 1924). "The occurrence of the Blow-Gun in Assam". Man. 24. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 106. doi:10.2307/2788776. JSTOR 2788776.

[Shiou-chuan-22] Song, Yingxing; Sun, Shiou-chuan; Sun, E-tu Zen (1996). Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century: T'ien-kung K'ai-wu. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-486-29593-0.

[23] Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. T’oung pao 7, pp. 226-227.

[24] Jones, David E (2007). Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare. University of Texas Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1. Retrieved 2009-01-24.

[25] "How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows". Iziko Museums of Cape Town. Archived from the original on 2006-05-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.

[26] . 141

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Poison applied to arrow heads or darts for hunting or warfare}}
-'''Arrow poisons''' are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting. They have been used by [[hunter-gatherer]] peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of [[South America]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]].
+{{redirect-multi|3|Poison arrow|Poisoned arrow|Poison dart|the 1982 ABC song|Poison Arrow|the 1989 book by George Monbiot|Poisoned Arrows|the species of frogs|Poison dart frog|other uses|Poison arrows (disambiguation)}}
+'''Arrow poisons''' are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the [[poison dart frog]], and [[curare]] (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the [[indigenous peoples of South America]].<ref name="curare">{{cite web|url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/curare.htm|title=Curare|access-date=2006-08-09| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060810181857/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/curare.htm| archive-date= 10 August 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>
+==History ==
-Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the [[poison dart frog]] and [[curare]] (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] of [[South America]].<ref name="curare">{{cite web|url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/curare.htm|title=Curare|accessdate=2006-08-09}}</ref>
-Poisoned arrows have featured in [[mythology]], notably the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] story of [[Heracles]] slaying the [[centaur]] [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]] using arrows poisoned with the blood of the [[Lernaean Hydra]]. The Greek hero [[Odysseus]] poisons his arrows with [[hellebore]] in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]''. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homer's epic about the [[Trojan War]], the ''Iliad'', in which both [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] and [[Troy|Trojans]] used toxic arrows and spears.<ref name="Mayor">{{cite book |first=Adrienne |last=Mayor |title=Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World |year=2009 |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |edition=Revised |isbn=9781590201770}}</ref>
+Poisoned arrows have featured in [[mythology]], notably the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] story of [[Heracles]] slaying the [[centaur]] [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]] using arrows poisoned with the blood of the [[Lernaean Hydra]]. The Greek hero [[Odysseus]] poisons his arrows with [[hellebore]] in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]''. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homer's epic about the [[Trojan War]], the ''Iliad'', in which both [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] and [[Troy|Trojans]] used toxic arrows and spears.<ref name="Mayor">{{cite book |first=Adrienne |last=Mayor |title=Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World |year=2009 |publisher=[[The Overlook Press]] |edition=Revised |isbn=978-1-59020-177-0}}</ref> Poisoned arrows are referred to in the [[Book of Job]] in the [[Bible]], descriptive of the sufferings experienced by the just man, [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]].<ref>Job 6:4</ref>
+The modern terms "toxic" and "toxin" derive from the ancient Greek word for "bow", ''{{lang|grc-Latn|toxon}}'', from Old Persian ''*taxa-'', "an arrow".<ref>http://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702154119/http://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp |date=2012-07-02 }}, A History of Biological Warfare from 300 B.C.E. to the Present, Retrieved August 7, 2012.</ref><ref>http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toxic, Online Etymology Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.</ref><ref>http://www.thefreedictionary.com/toxic, The Free Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.</ref>
-Poison arrows were used by real peoples in the ancient world, including the [[Gauls]], [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]], and the [[Nomadic pastoralism|nomadic]] [[Scythians]] and [[Svans|Soanes]]. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used. [[Alexander the Great]] encountered poisoned projectiles during his [[Alexander's Indian campaign|conquest of India]] (probably dipped in the [[Daboia#Venom|venom]] of [[Daboia|Russell's viper]]) and the army of the Roman general [[Lucullus#Eastern Campaigns|Lucullus]] suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the [[Third Mithridatic War]] (1st century BC).<ref name="Mayor" />
+Poisoned arrows were used by real people in the ancient world, including the [[Gauls]], [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]], and the [[Nomadic pastoralism|nomadic]] [[Scythians]] and [[Svans|Soanes]]. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used. [[Alexander the Great]] encountered poisoned projectiles during his [[Alexander's Indian campaign|conquest of India]] (probably dipped in the [[Daboia#Venom|venom]] of [[Russell's viper]]) and the army of the Roman general [[Lucullus#Eastern Campaigns|Lucullus]] suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the [[Third Mithridatic War]] (1st century BC).<ref name="Mayor" />
-The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s has also been documented.<ref>{{cite book |first=David E |last=Jones |title=Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=9780292714281 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=m2v8akdyZfwC}}</ref>
+In the [[Kingdom of Kush]], arrows were often poison-tipped. There is some indication that poisoned arrows were used in battle against the Romans from 27 BC to 22 BC.<ref>David Nicolle, Angus McBride. 1991. Rome's Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. p. 11-15</ref>
-Over the ages, [[China|Chinese]] warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various nefarious substances.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ralph D |last=Sawyer |title=The Tao of Deception: Unorthodox Warfare in Historic and Modern China |year=2007 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=9780465072057}}</ref>
+[[Gregory of Tours]] claimed that during the reign of [[Emperor Maximus]] a Roman army was ambushed and destroyed by the [[Franks]] in Germany who used arrows poisoned in herb juices.<ref> Gregory of Tours, A history of the Franks, Pantianos classics, 1916</ref>
-[[Baldr]]'s death in the [[Norse mythology|Norse myths]] features poison arrows.
+The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] has also been documented.<ref>{{cite book |first=David E |last=Jones |title=Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=978-0-292-71428-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2v8akdyZfwC}}</ref>
+Over the ages, [[China|Chinese]] warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ralph D |last=Sawyer |title=The Tao of Deception: Unorthodox Warfare in Historic and Modern China |year=2007 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-07205-7}}</ref>
 ==Varieties==
+{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
 Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:
-===Plant based poisons===
+===Plant-based poisons===
-[[Image:Strychnos Toxifera by Koehler 1887.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''Strychnos toxifera'', a plant commonly used in the preparation of [[curare]]]]
+[[File:Strychnos toxifera - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-267.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''[[Strychnos toxifera]]'', a plant commonly used in the preparation of [[curare]]]]
-*[[Curare]] is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain [[tubocurarine]].  Most frequently it is derived from the bark of ''[[Strychnos]] toxifera'', ''S. guianensis'' (family [[Loganiaceae]]), ''Chondrodendron tomentosum'' or ''Sciadotenia toxifera'' (family [[Menispermaceae]]). Curare is a [[competitive antagonist]] that blocks [[nicotinic acetylcholine receptor]]s on the [[Chemical synapse|post synaptic membrane]] of the [[neuromuscular junction]]. It is a [[muscle relaxant]] that causes death by paralyzing the [[respiratory system]], resulting in [[asphyxia]]tion.
+*[[Curare]] is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain [[tubocurarine]], curarine, quinine, protocurarine and related alkaloids.  Most frequently it is derived from the bark of ''[[Strychnos toxifera]]'', ''[[Strychnos  guianensis]]'' (family [[Loganiaceae]]), ''[[Chondrodendron tomentosum]]'' or ''[[Sciadotenia toxifera]]'' (family [[Menispermaceae]]). Curare is a [[competitive antagonist]] that blocks [[nicotinic acetylcholine receptor]]s on the [[Chemical synapse|post synaptic membrane]] of the [[neuromuscular junction]]. It is a [[muscle relaxant]] that causes death by paralyzing the [[respiratory system]], resulting in [[asphyxia]]tion.
+*In Africa, many arrow poisons are made from plants that contain [[cardiac glycoside]]s, such as ''[[Acokanthera]]'' (possessing [[ouabain]]), oleander (''[[Nerium oleander]]''), milkweeds (''[[Asclepias]]''), or ''[[Strophanthus]]'', all of which are in the family [[Apocynaceae]].<ref name="curare" />  Inee or onaye is a poison made from ''[[Strophanthus hispidus]]'', which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin.  It is used in [[sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] West Africa, particularly in the areas of [[Togo]] and [[Cameroon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://websters.wunderdictionary.com/dictionary/def/english/inee.html|title=Definition of ''inee''|publisher=Webster's International Dictionary|year=1913|access-date=2006-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216161405/http://websters.wunderdictionary.com/dictionary/def/english/inee.html| archive-date=2012-02-16}}</ref> Certain species of the genus ''[[Mostuea]]'' (family [[Gelsemiaceae]]) are used as additives to arrow poisons (other ingredients unspecified). The toxic principles of ''Mostuea'' are [[alkaloid]]s, not cardiac glycosides.<ref name= "Quattrocchi">Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.</ref>
+*Poisoned arrows and [[Sumpit|blowgun darts]] are used widely in the jungle areas of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[South Asia]] for warfare and hunting. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the genera ''[[Antiaris]]'', ''[[Strychnos]]'' and ''[[Strophanthus]]''. ''[[Antiaris toxicaria]]'', a tree of the [[mulberry]] and [[breadfruit]] [[Moraceae|family]] locally known as ''upas'' or ''ancar'', is the most commonly used source for arrow poison in various ethnic groups in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and the [[Philippines]]. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.<ref name="Darmadi">{{cite journal |last1=Darmadi |first1=Hamid |title=Sumpit (Blowgun) as Traditional Weapons with Dayak High Protection |journal=Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning |date=30 March 2018 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=113 |doi=10.26737/jetl.v3i1.601|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Marinas">{{cite book |last1=Marinas |first1=Amante P. Sr. |title=Blowgun Techniques: The Definitive Guide to Modern and Traditional Blowgun Techniques |date=17 April 2012 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=9781462905546}}</ref><ref name="mt">{{cite news |title=Sumpit: The Filipino blowgun |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2015/01/24/sports/sumpit-filipino-blowgun/157871/ |access-date=31 January 2021 |work=The Manila Times |date=24 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="VandA">{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/object_stories/arrows/index.html|title=Poisoned arrows|publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum|access-date=2006-08-10| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060825134119/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/object_stories/arrows/index.html| archive-date= 25 August 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>  The fast-acting active ingredient (either [[antiarin]], [[strychnine]] or [[strophanthin]]) attacks the [[central nervous system]] causing [[paralysis]], [[Non-epileptic seizure|convulsions]] and [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name="VandA" />
-*In [[Africa]] arrow poisons are made from plants that contain [[cardiac glycoside]]s, such as ''[[Acokanthera]]'' (possessing [[ouabain]]), oleander (''[[Nerium oleander]]''), milkweeds (''[[Asclepias]]''), or ''[[Strophanthus]]'', all of which are in the [[Apocynaceae]] family.<ref name="curare" />  Inee or onaye is a poison made from ''Strophanthus hispidus'', which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin.  It is used in [[sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] [[West Africa]], particularly in the areas of [[Togo]] and [[Cameroon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://websters.wunderdictionary.com/dictionary/def/english/inee.html|title=Definition of ''inee''|publisher=Webster's International Dictionary|year=1913|accessdate=2006-08-09}}</ref>
+*Several species of ''[[Aconitum]]'' or "aconite," belonging to the [[Ranunculus|buttercup]] family, have been used as arrow poisons. The [[Brokpa]] in [[Ladakh]] use ''[[Aconitum napellus]]'' on their arrows to hunt [[Siberian ibex]]; they were in use recently near lake [[Issyk Kul]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]].<ref>{{cite book |first=George |last=St. George |title=Soviet Deserts and Mountains |location=[[Amsterdam]] |publisher=[[Time–Life|Time-Life International]] |year=1974}}</ref>  The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Matagi]] of northern Japan used an ''[[Aconitum]]'' paste called {{Nihongo|''surku''|スㇽク}} to hunt [[brown bear]] and [[Yezo sika deer|sika]], applied to arrows fired from either bows or [[amappo]].<ref name="kayano">{{cite book |last1=萱野 Kayano |first1=茂 Shigeru |title=アイヌの民具 Ainu no mingu |date=January 1, 1978 |publisher=すずさわ書店 Suzusawa Shoten |location=Japan |isbn=978-4795404014 |edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Michel |last=Peissel |author-link=Michel Peissel |year=1984 |title=The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas |location=[[London]] [[Random House|Harvill Press]] |pages=99–100 |isbn=9780002725149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PKpAAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Ants%E2%80%99+Gold.+The+Discovery+of+the+Greek+El+Dorado+in+the+Himalayas}}</ref>  It was also used by the [[Butia]]s and [[Lepcha people|Lepchas]] in [[Sikkim]] and [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph Dalton |last=Hooker |author-link=Joseph Dalton Hooker |title=Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist |year=1854 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |location=London |access-date=2006-09-17 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6478 |page=168}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=J. H. |last=Hutton |title=The occurrence of the Blow-Gun in Assam |journal=[[Man (journal)|Man]] |publisher=[[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] |volume=24 |date=July 1924 |page=106|doi=10.2307/2788776 |jstor=2788776 }}</ref> The Chinese used ''Aconitum'' poisons both for hunting<ref name="Shiou-chuan">{{cite book |first=Yingxing |last=Song |author2=Sun, Shiou-chuan|author3= Sun, E-tu Zen |title=Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century: T'ien-kung K'ai-wu |year=1996 |location=[[Mineola, New York]] |publisher= [[Dover Publications]] |isbn=978-0-486-29593-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM2Bh6WifHQC |page=267}}</ref> and warfare.<ref>Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. ''T’oung pao'' 7, pp. 226-227.</ref>
+*The [[Kalinago]] of the Caribbean used poisons made from the sap of the [[manchineel tree]] (''Hippomane mancinella'') or [[sandbox tree]] (''Hura crepitans''), both members of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]].<ref>{{cite book |first=David E |last=Jones |title=Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=978-0-292-71428-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2v8akdyZfwC |page=29 |access-date=2009-01-24}}</ref>
-*Poisoned arrows are used widely in the jungle areas of [[Assam]], [[Burma]] and [[Malaysia]]. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the ''[[Antiaris]]'', ''[[Strychnos]]'' and ''Strophanthus'' genera. ''[[Antiaris toxicaria]]'' for example, a tree of the [[mulberry]] and [[breadfruit]] [[Moraceae|family]], is commonly used on [[Java]] and its neighbouring islands. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.<ref name="VandA">{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/object_stories/arrows/index.html|title=Poisoned arrows|publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum|accessdate=2006-08-10}}</ref>  The fast-acting active ingredient (either antiarin, [[strychnine]] or strophanthin) attacks the [[central nervous system]] causing [[paralysis]], [[Non-epileptic seizure|convulsions]] and [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name="VandA" />
-*Several species of ''[[Aconitum]]'' or "aconite" have been used as arrow poisons, which belong to the [[Ranunculus|buttercup]] family, [[Ranunculaceae]]. The [[Minaro]] in [[Ladakh]] use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt [[Siberian Ibex]]; they were in use recently near lake [[Issyk Kul]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]].<ref>{{cite book |first=George |last=St. George |title=Soviet Deserts and Mountains |location=[[Amsterdam]] |publisher=[[Time–Life|Time-Life International]] |year=1974}}</ref>  The [[Ainu people|Ainu]]s in [[Japan]] used a species of ''[[Aconitum]]'' to hunt [[Brown Bear]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Michel |last=Peissel |authorlink=Michel Peissel |year=1984 |title=The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas |location=[[London]] [[Random House|Harvill Press]] |pages=99–100 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=PKpAAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Ants%E2%80%99+Gold.+The+Discovery+of+the+Greek+El+Dorado+in+the+Himalayas&dq=The+Ants%E2%80%99+Gold.+The+Discovery+of+the+Greek+El+Dorado+in+the+Himalayas}}</ref>  It was also used by the [[Butia]]s and [[Lepcha people|Lepchas]] in [[Sikkim]] and [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph Dalton |last=Hooker |authorlink=Joseph Dalton Hooker |title=Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist |year=1854 |publisher=[[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] |location=London |accessdate=2006-09-17 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6478 |page=168}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=J. H. |last=Hutton |title=The occurrence of the Blow-Gun in Assam |journal=[[Man (journal)|Man]] |publisher=[[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] |volume=24 |month=July |year=1924 |page=106}}</ref> The Chinese used ''Aconitum'' poisons both for hunting<ref name="Shiou-chuan">{{cite book |first=Yingxing |last=Song |coauthors=Sun, Shiou-chuan; Sun, E-tu Zen |title=Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century: T'ien-kung K'ai-wu |year=1996 |location=[[Mineola, New York]] |publisher= [[Dover Publications]] |isbn=9780486295930 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=fM2Bh6WifHQC |page=267}}</ref> and warfare.<ref>Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. ''T’oung pao'' 7, pp. 226-227.</ref>
-*The [[Carib people|Carib]]s of the Caribbean used poisons made from the sap of the [[Manchineel tree]] (''Hippomane mancinella'') or [[Sandbox Tree]] (''[[Hura (genus)|Hura]] crepitans''), both members of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]].<ref>{{cite book |first=David E |last=Jones |title=Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=9780292714281 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=m2v8akdyZfwC |page=29 |accessdate=2009-01-24}}</ref>
 ===Animal-based poisons===
-[[Image:Ra077eue.jpg|right|220px|thumb|The [[Phyllobates bicolor|black-legged dart frog]], a species of [[poison dart frog]] whose secretions are used in the preparation of poison darts.]]
+[[File:Phyllobates_bicolor_frog_on_soil.jpg|right|220px|thumb|The [[Phyllobates bicolor|black-legged dart frog]], a species of [[poison dart frog]] whose secretions are used in the preparation of poison darts.]]
-*In [[South America]], tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western [[Colombia]] dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of ''[[Phyllobates]]'', a genus of [[poison dart frog]]. In northern [[Chocó Department]], ''[[Phyllobates aurotaenia]]'' is used, while ''[[Black-legged Dart Frog|P. bicolor]]'' is used in [[Risaralda Department]] and southern Chocó. In [[Cauca Department]], only ''[[Golden Poison Frog|P. terribilis]]'' is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the [[batrachotoxin]]s in ''P. terribilis'' are powerful enough that it is sufficient to dip the dart in the back of the frog without killing it.
+*In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western [[Colombia]] dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of ''[[Phyllobates]]'', a genus of [[poison dart frog]]. In northern [[Chocó Department]], ''[[Phyllobates aurotaenia]]'' is used, while ''[[black-legged dart frog|P. bicolor]]'' is used in [[Risaralda Department]] and southern Chocó. In [[Cauca Department]], only ''[[golden poison frog|P. terribilis]]'' is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the [[batrachotoxin|steroids]] in ''P. terribilis'' are powerful enough that it is sufficient to rub the dart on the back of the frog without killing it.
+*In the northern [[Kalahari Desert]], the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the [[larva]] and [[pupae]] of [[Leaf beetle|beetles]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Diamphidia]]''. It is applied to the arrow either by crushing the larva directly onto the arrow head and mixing it with plant sap to act as an binder, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals, including humans, can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museums.org.za/bio/insects/beetles/chrysomelidae/arrows.htm |title=How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows |publisher=Iziko Museums of Cape Town |access-date=2006-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506073955/http://www.museums.org.za/bio/insects/beetles/chrysomelidae/arrows.htm |archive-date=2006-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+*In the United States, [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes {{which?|date=July 2023}} used venomous reptiles to provide the poisons required. In the [[Southwest United States]], the [[Gila monster]], being one of the only two [[venomous]] [[lizards]], has been used as a source.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}
-*In the northern [[Kalahari Desert]], the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the [[larva]] and [[pupae]] of [[Leaf beetle|beetles]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Diamphidia]]''. It is applied to the arrow either by squeezing the contents of the larva directly onto the arrow head, mixing it with plant sap to act as an adhesive, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museums.org.za/bio/insects/beetles/chrysomelidae/arrows.htm|title=How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows|publisher=Iziko Museums of Cape Town|accessdate=2006-08-09 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060506073955/http://www.museums.org.za/bio/insects/beetles/chrysomelidae/arrows.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-05-06}}</ref>
+* There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes"<ref>p. 141</ref> (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a notched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked. Wounds with these weapons caused [[tetanus]] infection.
-There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes" P.141 (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a knotched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked.  Wounds with these weapons  caused terrible tetanus infection.
 ===Preparation===
+{{expand section|date=March 2014}}
+The following 17th-century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
+{{blockquote|In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild [[aconitum]] are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood.<ref name="Shiou-chuan" />}}
-The following 17th century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
-:"In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild [[aconitum]] are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood."<ref name="Shiou-chuan" />
 ==See also==
 * [[Blowgun]]
+* [[Bushman poison (disambiguation)]]
-* [[Blowdart]]
+* [[Fire Arrow]]
-* [[Bushman Poison (disambiguation)]]
-* [[Fukiya]] Japanese blowgun
+* [[Fukiya]], Japanese blowgun
-* [[:fr:Sarbacane (Loire)|Loire style Blowgun]]  (French page)
+* [[:fr:Sarbacane de la Loire|Loire style blowgun]]  (French page)
-* [[Ricin]]
-==Notes==
+==References==
+{{reflist}}
-<references />
-==External links==
-* [http://www.topicjax.com/poison-arrow-frog-facts Poison Arrow Frog Facts]
 {{DEFAULTSORT:Arrow Poison}}
 [[Category:Archery]]
+[[Category:Arrow types]]
 [[Category:Hunting equipment]]
 [[Category:Projectiles]]
-[[Category:Toxicology]]
+[[Category:Poisons]]
-[[de:Pfeilgift]]
-[[fr:Flèche empoisonnée]]
-[[nl:Pijlgif]]
-[[ja:毒矢]]