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==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
<references/>
<references/>


Just because the crowd goes one way, doesn't mean we all go need to go that way, nor does it make it the right way!


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 00:16, 10 December 2006

Biblical archaeology involves the recovery and scientific investigation of the material remains of past cultures that can illuminate the periods and descriptions in the Bible. As with the historical records from any other civilization, the manuscripts must be compared to other accounts from contemporary societies in Europe, Mesopotamia, and Africa; additionally, records from neighbors must be compared with them. The scientific techniques employed are those of archaeology in general including excavations as well as chance discoveries.

By contrast Near Eastern archaeology is simply the archaeology of the Ancient Near East without any particular consideration of how its discoveries relate to the Bible.

Biblical archaeology is a controversial subject with differing opinions on what its purpose and goals are or should be. Professional opinions of Biblical archaeology have been set aside in a separate Professional commentary section.

Milestones prior to 1914

Biblical Archaeology began after publication by Edward Robinson (American professor of Biblical literature; 1794-1863) of his travels through Palestine during the first half of the 19th century (a time when the oldest complete Hebrew scripture only dated to the Middle Ages), which highlighted similarities between modern Arabic place-names and Biblical city names.

The Palestine Exploration Fund sponsored detailed surveys led by Charles Warren during the late 1860s (initially financed by Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts in 1864 to improve Jerusalem's sanitary conditions), which culminated with the formal publication of "The Survey of Western Palestine" from 1871-1877.

The highlight of this period was Warren's work around the Temple Mount of Jerusalem, where he discovered the foundation stones of Herod's Temple, the first Israelite inscriptions on several jar handles with LMLK seals, and water shafts under the City of David.

  • 1890 Sir W.M.F. Petrie noticed strata exposed by waterflow adjacent to Tell el-Hesi (originally believed to be Biblical Lachish, now probably Eglon) and popularized details of pottery groups excavated therefrom. F.J. Bliss continued digging there in 1891-2.

Subsequent highlights of major sites mentioned in the Bible where excavations spanned more than one season:

Milestones during 1914 - 1945

Following World War I, during the British Mandate of Palestine, antiquities laws were established for Palestinian territory along with a Department of Antiquities (later to become the modern Israel Antiquities Authority) and the Palestine Archaeological Museum in Jerusalem (now named the Rockefeller Museum).

J. Garstang was instrumental in these accomplishments. W.F. Albright dominated the scholarship of this period and had long-lasting influence on Biblical historians based on his analysis of Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery.

Milestones during 1945 - 1967

The Dead Sea Scrolls and other ancient copies of the Hebrew Bible manuscripts do not qualify as artifacts representing something mentioned in the Bible, although they are an important testimony to the antiquity of the texts, and the reliable manner in which they were preserved through the centuries.

The first seven scrolls had initially appeared on the antiquities market, but when their enormous importance was recognized, archaeologists eventually found their source in a series of caves above the Dead Sea, and subsequent searches located thousands of similar fragments.

Following the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 and the declaration of the state of Israel in 1948, Biblical Archaeology gained new momentum. The science of archaeology had been digested and refined by new excavators who conducted numerous surveys of smaller sites during the second half of the 20th century, and re-excavations at major sites using modernized techniques.

Milestones after 1967

Following the capture of the Western Wall and the Temple Mount during the Six-day War, archeologists conducted more extensive excavations within the city limits of modern Jerusalem.

One highlight in particular came from Ketef Hinnom just southwest of the Old City: two small silver scrolls uniquely preserve Biblical texts older than the Dead Sea Scrolls. Both of these amulets contain the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers; one also contains a quote found in parallel verses of Exodus (20:6) and Deuteronomy (5:10 and 7:9). The same verses appear again even later in Daniel (9:4) and Nehemiah (1:5).

Confirmed Biblical structures

  • Jericho's walls
    • A destruction of Jericho's walls dates archeologically to around 1550 BC at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, by a siege or an earthquake in the context of a burn layer, called City IV destruction. Opinions differ as to whether they are the walls referred to in the Bible. According to a prevailing biblical chronology, the Israelites destroyed Jericho after its walls fell in around 1407 BC. Originally, John Garstang's excavation in the 1930s dated Jericho's destruction to around 1400 BC, in confirmation, but Kathleen Kenyon's excavation in the 1950s redated it to around 1550 BC, a date that most archeologists support. In 1990, Bryant Wood critiqued Kenyon's work after her field notes became fully available. Observing ambiguities and relying on the only available carbon dating of the burn layer, which yielded a date of 1410 BC plus or minus 40 years, Wood dated the destruction to this time, confirming Garstang and the biblical chronology. Unfortunately, this carbon date was itself the result of faulty calibration. In 1995, Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht used high-precision radiocarbon dating for eighteen samples from Jericho, including six samples of charred cereal grains from the burn layer, and overall dated the destruction to an average 1562 BC plus or minus 38 years.(Radiocarbon Vol. 37, Number 2, 1995.)[1][2] Kenyon's date of around 1550 BC is more secure than ever. Scholars who link these walls to the biblical account must explain how the Israelites arrived around 1550 BC but settled four centuries later and devise a new biblical chronology that corresponds.
  • 19 tumuli located west of Jerusalem, undoubtedly dating to the Judean monarchy, but possibly representing sites of memorial ceremonies for the kings as mentioned in 2 Chronicles 16:14, 21:19, 32:33, and the book of Jeremiah 34:5

Artifacts from documented excavations

  • Balaam texts (ink/paint on plaster found at Deir 'Alla in Jordan that parallels Numbers chapters 22-24)
  • Ebla (Tell Mardikh) cuneiform archives. These include a king of Ebla named Ebrum, who some identify as the Biblical patriarch Eber (or Heber), after whom the Hebrews were named.[citation needed] Also reported are references to people with Semitic names and gods similar to those in the Bible. They are also rumored[citation needed] to contain references to the same five cities mentioned in the book of Genesis: Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Bela/Zoar in the same order as in Genesis 14. The government of Syria continues to withhold complete publication of the texts, and this story remains a rumor.[citation needed] Quoting Paolo Matthiae:

The tablets cover a thousand years before Abraham, and a thousand years, even in the fourth millennium before Christ, was a very, very long time. They tell us much, but what they don't tell us - what they can't tell us - is whether the Bible is true or not. They have nothing to do with the Bible, at least not directly, and what we have here is not a biblical expedition. If we have tablets with legends similar to those of the Bible it means only that such legends existed round here long before the Bible." ( C. Bermant and M. Weitzman, Ebla: A Revelation In Archaeology, Op. Cit., p. 2.)

  • Ekron inscription (discovered in 1993 at Tel Miqne)
  • Gath ostracon
    • Found by A. Maeir while excavating Tell es-Safi in 2005
    • Incised with nine letters representing two names (אלות ולת) etymologically related to Goliath (גלית)
  • "House of David" inscription on Tel Dan Stele
    • It consists of three fragments: the first and largest was discovered in 1993, and two smaller fragments were discovered in 1994.)
  • Izbet Sartah ostracon; 2 fragments excavated in 1976
    • 5 incised lines of 80-83 letters (readings of epigraphers vary), the last line being an abecedary
    • Found in the silo of an unfortified village (possibly Biblical Ebenezer 2 miles east of Philistine Aphek) occupied from 1200-1000 BC
    • See Chapter 3 of In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language (Hoffman 2004) for the linguistic importance of the Hebrew.
    • See plates in The Text of the Old Testament (Wurthwein 1995) for a facsimile of the ostracon
  • Jaazaniah, servant of the king (ליאזניהו עבד המלך) striated agate seal with fighting cock icon
  • Jehucal, the son of Shelemiah, the son of Shobi (יהוכל בן שלמיהו בן שבי) seal impression stamped on bulla
  • Lachish ostraca
    • Most of these terse texts, discovered in the 1930s, depict conditions during the end of the 7th century BC shortly before the Chaldean conquest.
    • Letter #3 mentions a warning from the prophet.
    • Letter #4 names Lachish and Azekah as among the last places being conquered as recorded in Jeremiah 34:7.
    • Letter #6 describes a conspiracy reminiscent of Jeremiah 38:19 and 39:9 using phraseology nearly identical to 38:4.
  • Pontius Pilate inscription found in secondary use in a stairway of the Roman theater in Caesarea
    • "The prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, erected the Tiberium (in honor of Tiberius Caesar)"
    • Actual text of 3-line inscription (eroded portion in brackets is speculative but undisputed):
TIBERIEUM
[PON]TIUS PILATUS
[PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E
  • Sargon II's Conquest of Samaria inscription (ANET 284) found by P.E. Botta at Khorsabad in 1843: "I besieged and conquered Samaria, led away as booty 27,290 inhabitants of it. ... The town I rebuilt better than it was before and settled therein people from countries which I myself had conquered." (2 Kings 17:23-24)

Artifacts not from excavations, but with undisputed provenance

Items in this list mostly come from 19th-century surveys, and undocumented collections whose provenance is not relevant due to the genuine nature of their content. In other words, they were discovered at a time when knowledge was so limited that they could not have been faked.

  • Elephantine papyri
    • Date to the Persian period, from an archive of Jews living in Egypt.
    • One was written by someone in Jerusalem named Hananiah, who may have been the person mentioned in Nehemiah 7:2
  • Nazareth Inscription
    • Marble tablet with "Edict of Caesar" proscribing capital punishment for tomb-breakers, datable to the first century A.D., and allegedly acquired by the Frohner Collection in 1878 from Nazareth.

Artifacts with unknown, disputed, or disproved provenance

Items in this list mostly come from private collections via the antiquities market, but also from chance finds prior to the establishment of antiquities laws. Their authenticity is highly controversial and in some cases has been demonstrated to be fraudulent.

  • Artifacts originating from the antiquities dealer, Oded Golan. In December 2004 he was indicted by the Israeli police, together with several accomplices, for forging the following artifacts:
    • The James Ossuary inscribed James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus suspected of being forged on a genuine ancient ossuary.
    • The Joash (Jehoash) tablet recording repairs to the Temple in Jerusalem suspected of being forged on a genuine ancient stone panel.
    • Various ostraca mentioning the Temple or place names from the Bible.
    • A seven-nozzle stone lamp, bearing decorations of a Temple menorah and the seven species
    • A stone seal with gold rim, attributed to King Manasseh of Judah.
    • A quartz bowl bearing an inscription in ancient Egyptian, indicating that the Minister of the Army of King Shishek conquered the ancient city of Meggido.
    • An ivory pomegranate inscribed Property of the priests of the temple… forged on a genuine ancient piece of ivory.
    • A pottery jug bearing an inscription claiming that it was given as a contribution to the Temple.
    • Numerous bullae including ones which mention Biblical figures including King Hezekiah of Judah, the scribe Baruch and the prophet Isaiah.
  • The remains of Noah's Ark have been allegedly located by a number of archaeological groups and individuals. Most academics discount their findings as pseudoarchaeology.
    • Archaeologist Ron Wyatt claimed to have possibly located the Ark's final resting place. Since his death he has been acclaimed by many Bible believers. A plethora of internet sites concerning him have come into existence, and some have fabricated information about him and his discoveries.
    • An Italian creationist archaeological group named La Narkas is the most recent of numerous groups claiming to have pinpointed the location of Noah's Ark close to the top of Mount Ararat, which straddles the border of Turkey and Armenia. Photographs of this alleged discovery are available on their website [3].
    • In 2004, yet another expedition went to Mount Ararat in Turkey to try to locate the Ark. Samples from Turkey tested by Geological and Nuclear Sciences, a New Zealand government research institute, were found to be volcanic rock rather than petrified wood. [4]
  • Shroud of Turin
    • Critics claim it contains a painted image of Jesus forged in the Middle Ages; others maintain the image was formed by some energetic process that darkened the fibers (such as a flash of light the instant the resurrection occurred). Radiocarbon dating seemed to limit its origin to the Middle Ages, but some analysts suggest the tests were erroneously performed using samples taken from patches sewn onto the ancient cloth during the Middle Ages, or contaminated from fires it was exposed to. Other analysts suggest that the dating results are skewed by limestone residue which is present on the shroud.
  • Stone of Scone, also known as Jacob's Pillar
    • For centuries, this rock has been an integral compenent of coronation ceremonies for kings in the British isles. It is believed to be the rock upon which Jacob (later renamed Israel) received a vision, and a crack in it may have resulted from Moses striking it to bring forth water. None of this can be proven, and attempts to link it to Palestine via Jeremiah lack foundation.
  • Veil of Veronica
    • A cloth with an image of a bearded man on it. The faithful believe the cloth was used by Veronica to wipe sweat from the face of Jesus along the Via Dolorosa on the way to Calvary. Critics say it appears to be a man-made image.

Dubious past methods of Western archaeology

It was quite common in the 19th and 20th centuries for archaeologists from Western countries, especially Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the USA, to conduct excavations in other countries with little regard for local concerns.

These foreign expeditions would remove valuable artifacts to their own countries, and often relied on the local populace as a source of cheap labour to accomplish the less glamourous heavy work.

As an example, in Biblical Archaeology Review Cyrus H. Gordon, noted to be a scholar of enormous range, informed Hershel Shanks that William Foxwell Albright, Ovid Sellers, and other educated people, including himself, found soiling their own hands by digging beneath their dignity. Arab laborers were supervised by taskmasters that used whips. They used to beat the workers. Gordon explained,"That's the only communication they understood. You didn't have working men's rights, human rights, things like that." [1]

The image of archaeology in the Middle East has changed in recent decades as local rule has replaced imperial control and colonization. Countries such as Israel have developed strong archaeological expertise and conduct operations according to local laws and customs.

Professional commentary

"The purpose of Biblical archaeology is the clarification and illumination of the Biblical text and content through archaeological investigation of the Biblical world," wrote J.K. Eakins in an essay (1977) in Benchmarks in Time and Culture [5].

Bryant G. Wood wrote, "The purpose of Biblical archaeology is to enhance our comprehension of the Bible, and so its greatest achievement, in my view, has been the extraordinary illumination of the... time of the Israelite monarchy" (in Biblical Archaeology Review, May-June, 1995, p. 33).

In a statement of a more nuanced opinion of Biblical archaeology, Robert I.Bradshaw notes, "It is virtually universally agreed that the purpose of biblical archaeology is not to 'prove' the Bible, however ...in as much as archaeology sheds light on that history it is important to biblical studies" [6]

The American archaeologist William Dever contributed to the article "Archaeology" in The Anchor Bible Dictionary (see Anchor Bible Series). There he assessed several negative effects of the close relationship that has existed between Syro-Palestinian archaeology and the Biblical archaeology of the Holy Land, which have especially caused American archaeologists in this field to lag behind the new "processual archaeology" in the region, generally considered: "Underlying much of the skepticism in our own field [about the adaptation of the concepts and methods of the "new archaeology"], one suspects, was the assumption (albeit unspoken, or even unconscious) that ancient Palestine, especially Israel in the biblical period, was unique—somehow 'superhistorical' not governed by the normal principles of cultural evolution," and he claims "...the 'new archaeology' of the 1970s-1980s became passé before we had even caught up with it" [2](p 357).

Dever finds that Syro-Palestinian archaeology in American institutions has been treated as a subdiscipline of Biblical studies. American archaeologists in this region were expected to try "to provide historical validation for episodes in the biblical tradition." According to Dever, "[t]he most naïve [misconception about Syro-Palestinian archaeology] is that the rationale and purpose of "biblical archaeology" (and, by extrapolation, Syro-Palestinian archaeology) is simply to elucidate the Bible, or the lands of the Bible" [3](p 358)

Professor of Near Eastern Archaeology, William G. Dever writes:

Until about a generation ago Biblical achaeologists spoke confidently about William Foxwell Albright's "archaeological revolution". It would assuredly enhance our understanding and appreciation of the Bible and its timeless message-which was thought to be absolutely essential to our cherished Western culture condition.

The Bible and the "Christian West," as formerly conceived, are fighting for their lives. Not only has modern archaeology not helped to confirm the earlier tradition, it appears to some to be part of the process to undermine it. This is a not-so-well kept secret among professional archaeologists.

The failure of the "archaeological revolution" means tryng to occupy the beleaguered middle ground, neither extreme skeptics or naive credulists. The clock cannot be turned back to the time when archaeology allegedly "proved the Bible." Archaeology as it is practiced today must be able to challenge, as well as confirm, the Bible stories. Some things described there really did happen, but others did not. The Biblical narratives about Abraham, Moses, Joshua and Solomon probably reflect some historical memories of people and places, but the "larger than life" portraits of the Bible are unrealistic and contradicted by the archaeological evidence. Some of Israel's ancestors probably did come out of Egyptian slavery, but there was no military conquest of Canaan, and many, if not most, of the Israelites throughout the Monarchy were polytheists. Monotheism may have been an ideal of Bible writers. Archaeology cannot not decide what the supposed events described in the Bible mean. That decision is left up to each individual. Archaeology cannot decide this question; it can only sharpen our focus.[4](Dever, 2006)

Footnotes

  1. ^ Shanks, Hershel (2000). "Against the Tide: An interview with Maverick Scholar Cyrus Gordon". Biblical Archaeology Review. 26, No 6: 52. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Dever, William G. "Archaeology". The Anchor Bible Dictionary. p. 357.
  3. ^ Dever, William G. "Archaeology". The Anchor Bible Dictionary. p. 358.
  4. ^ Dever, William G. (2006). "The Western Cultural Tradition Is at Risk". Biblical Archaeology Review. 32, No 2: 26 & 76. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

See also

External links

Further reading

  • Chapman, and J.N. Tubb, Archaeology & The Bible (British Museum, 1990)
  • Cornfeld, G.and D.N. Freedman, Archaeology Of The Bible Book By Book (1989)
  • Davies, P.R., In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins, Sheffield (JSOT Press, 1992). A key resource in the maximalist/minimalist controversy by a leading minimalist scholar.
  • Dever, William G., "Archaeology and the Bible : Understanding their special relationship", in Biblical Archaeology Review 16:3, (May/June 1990)
  • Dever, William G. (2002). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8028-2126-X.
  • Dever, William G. (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
  • Finkelstein, Israel, and Neil Asher Silberman (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Free Press. ISBN 0-684-86913-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Frerichs, Ernest S. and Leonard H. Lesko eds. Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1997 ISBN 1-57506-025-6 Collection of six essays. Denver Seminary review
  • Keller, Werner, The Bible as History, 1955. A widely-read but very out dated popular account, approximately fifty years old.
  • Kitchen, Kenneth A., On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)
  • Lance, H.D. The Old Testament and The Archaeologist. London (1983)
  • Mazar, A., Archaeology of the Land of the Bible (The Anchor Bible Reference Library, 1990)
  • Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2004). Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. SBL Academia Biblica series, no. 12. Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature.
  • Negev, Avraham, and Gibson, Shimon, (eds.) (2003). Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York, NY: The Continuum International Publishing Group. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Ramsey, George W. The Quest For The Historical Israel. London (1982)
  • Robinson, Edward (1856) Biblical Researches in Palestine, 1838-52, Boston, MA: Crocker and Brewster.
  • Thompson, J.A., The Bible And Archaeology, revised edition (1973)
  • Winstone, H.V.F. The Life of Sir Leonard Woolley of Ur, London, 1990
  • Wright, G. Ernest, Biblical Archaeology. Philedelphia: Westminster, (1962).
  • Yamauchi, E. The Stones And The Scriptures. London: IVP, (1973).
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