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'''Feminism''' refers to [[feminist movement|movements]] aimed at establishing and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women.<ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminism</ref><ref>http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/feminism</ref><ref>http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861610952</ref> Its concepts overlap with those of [[women's rights]]. Some people argue that gender is a social construction that harms all people; feminism thus seeks to liberate men as well as women.<ref>Butler, Judith 1992 ''Bodies that Matter'' London: Routledge. 4-12</ref> '''Feminists'''—that is, persons practicing feminism—can be persons of either sex.
'''Feminism''' refers to [[feminist movement|movements]] aimed at establishing and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women.<ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminism</ref><ref>http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/feminism</ref><ref>http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861610952</ref> Its concepts overlap with those of [[women's rights]]. Some people argue that gender is a social construction that harms all people.<ref>Butler, Judith 1992 ''Bodies that Matter'' London: Routledge. 4-12</ref> '''Feminists'''—that is, persons practicing feminism—can be persons of either sex.


[[Feminist theory]] emerged from these feminist movements<ref name="Chodorow1989">{{Cite book |author=Chodorow, Nancy |title=Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory |year=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=978-0-300-05116-2}}</ref><ref name="gilligan1977">{{Cite journal |last=Gilligan |first=Carol |year=1977 |title='In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality'|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=47|issue=4 |pages=481–517|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ174986&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ174986 |doi=|oclc = |accessdate=2008-06-08 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> and includes general theories and theories about the origins of inequality, and, in some cases, about the social construction of sex and gender, in a variety of disciplines. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's rights—such as in contract, property, and [[women's suffrage|voting]]—while also promoting women's rights to bodily integrity and autonomy and [[reproductive rights]]. They have opposed [[domestic violence]], [[sexual harassment]], and [[sexual assault]]. In economics, they have advocated for workplace rights, including [[equal pay for women|equal pay]] and opportunities for careers and to start businesses.
[[Feminist theory]] emerged from these feminist movements<ref name="Chodorow1989">{{Cite book |author=Chodorow, Nancy |title=Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory |year=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=978-0-300-05116-2}}</ref><ref name="gilligan1977">{{Cite journal |last=Gilligan |first=Carol |year=1977 |title='In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality'|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=47|issue=4 |pages=481–517|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ174986&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ174986 |doi=|oclc = |accessdate=2008-06-08 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> and includes general theories and theories about the origins of inequality, and, in some cases, about the social construction of sex and gender, in a variety of disciplines. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's rights—such as in contract, property, and [[women's suffrage|voting]]—while also promoting women's rights to bodily integrity and autonomy and [[reproductive rights]]. They have opposed [[domestic violence]], [[sexual harassment]], and [[sexual assault]]. In economics, they have advocated for workplace rights, including [[equal pay for women|equal pay]] and opportunities for careers and to start businesses.

Revision as of 22:55, 27 December 2010

"Feminists" redirects here. For notable individuals, see List of feminists.

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Feminism refers to movements aimed at establishing and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women.[1][2][3] Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights. Some people argue that gender is a social construction that harms all people.[4] Feminists—that is, persons practicing feminism—can be persons of either sex.

Feminist theory emerged from these feminist movements[5][6] and includes general theories and theories about the origins of inequality, and, in some cases, about the social construction of sex and gender, in a variety of disciplines. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's rights—such as in contract, property, and voting—while also promoting women's rights to bodily integrity and autonomy and reproductive rights. They have opposed domestic violence, sexual harassment, and sexual assault. In economics, they have advocated for workplace rights, including equal pay and opportunities for careers and to start businesses.

The movements and theoretical developments were historically led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America, but, since then, more women have proposed additional feminisms.

History

Main article: History of feminism
Louise Weiss along with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads, in translation, "THE FRENCHWOMAN MUST VOTE".

Protofeminism preceded feminism and is based on sources other than feminists' writings. Feminists' writings then began to appear, such as those by Christine de Pizan in the 15th century and Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th century. Starting in the 19th century, feminism tended to arise in what we now refer to as waves, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom. First-wave feminism sought equality in property rights, changes in the marriage relationship, and, eventually, in women's suffrage, or women's right to vote. Second-wave feminism, also sometimes called women's liberation, began in the 1960s and focused on discrimination and on cultural, social, and political issues, and books about it included The Feminine Mystique and The Second Sex. It was often accused of orienting to upper middle-class white women and, sometimes, of biological essentialism. Third-wave feminism began in the 1980s or early 1990s and addresses feminism across class and race lines, as being grounded in culture rather than biology, and through many issues, so there exists less concentration on particular issues.

Post-feminism is, depending on the participant, either a later development of feminism or a denial that feminism has any continuing justification, so not all feminists consider post-feminism a part of feminism, some viewing it rather as a critique of feminism.[7]

Theoretical schools

Main article: Feminist theory

Feminist theory aims to understand gender difference and gender inequality and focuses on gender politics and sexuality. Providing a critique of these social and political power relations, much of feminist theory focuses on the promotion of women's rights. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy.[5][6] Feminist theory is academically concentrated in women's studies and encompasses work in history, anthropology, sociology, economics, literary criticism,[8][9] (supported by women's literature, music, film, and other media), art history,[10] psychoanalysis,[11] theology, philosophy,[12][13] geography, and other disciplines.

Elaine Showalter modeled the development of feminist theory,[14] although Toril Moi criticized this model, seeing it as essentialist, deterministic, and failing to account for the situation of women outside the West.[15]

Movements and ideologies

Several overlapping movements of feminist ideologies have developed over the years.

Liberal feminism seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and legal reform without altering the structure of society.

Socialist feminism connects oppression of women to exploitation, oppression, and labor. Marxist feminists feel that overcoming class oppression overcomes gender oppression;[16] some socialist feminists disagree.[17] Radical feminism considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary[18] and has branched into such as anti-pornography feminism, opposed by sex-positive feminism. Anarcha-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the State[19] require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy. Cultural feminism attempts to revalidate undervalued "female nature" or "female essence";[20] its critics assert that it has led feminists to retreat from politics to lifestyle.[21] Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is thus closely related. Some writers criticize separatist feminism as sexist.

Womanism[22][23] emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class.[24] Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together.[25][26][27] Chicana feminism focuses on Mexican American, Chicana, and Hispanic women in the United States. Multiracial or "women of colour" feminism is related.[28] Standpoint feminists argue that feminism should examine how women's experience of inequality relates to that of racism, homophobia, classism, and colonization.[29][30] Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless. Third-world feminism is closely related.[31] These discourses are related to African feminism, motherism,[32] Stiwanism,[33] negofeminism,[34] femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism.[35]

Conservative feminism is conservative relative to the society in which it resides. Libertarian feminism conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference.[36] Individualist feminism or ifeminism, opposing so-called gender feminism, draws on anarcho-capitalism.[37]

Postmodern feminists argue that sex and gender are socially constructed,[38] that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories,[39] and that dualisms and traditional gender, feminism, and politics are too limiting.[40] Post-structural feminism uses various intellectual currents for feminist concerns.[41] Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that women possess.[41][42] Contemporary psychoanalytic French feminism is more philosophical and literary than is Anglophone feminism.

Ecofeminists see men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment, but a criticism is that ecofeminism focuses too much on a mystical connection between women and nature.[43]

Movements share some perspectives while disagreeing on others. For example, some consider men oppressed by gender roles[44][45] while others consider men primarily the causative agents of sexism.[46]

Some feminists have argued that men's issues are an important part of feminism, as men's equality is necessary for women's equality.[47][48][49] These feminists point to legal and social imbalances in regard to father's rights, male rape and spousal battery, negative social expectations for men, and a narrow definition of "masculinity."

Societal impact

Main article: Feminist effects on society

The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; in education; in gender neutrality in English; job pay more nearly equal to men's; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the reproductive rights of women to make individual decisions on pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to enter into contracts and own property.[50][51] Feminists have struggled to protect women and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment, and sexual assault,[18][52][53] emphasizing the grounds as women's rights, rather than as men's traditional interests in families' safety for reproductive purposes. On economic matters, feminists have advocated for workplace rights, including maternity leave, and against other forms of gender-specific discrimination against women.[50][51][54] They have achieved some protections and societal changes through sharing experiences, developing theory, and campaigning for rights.[52][55][56][57][58]

From the 1960s on, the campaign for women's rights[59] was met with mixed results[60] in the U.S. and the U.K. Other countries of the EEC agreed to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community.

In the U.S., the National Organization for Women (NOW) began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),[61] which did not pass, although some states enacted their own.

Reproductive rights in the U.S. centered on the court decision in Roe v. Wade enunciating a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term. Western women gained more reliable birth control, allowing family planning and careers. The movement started in the 1910s in the U.S. under Margaret Sanger and elsewhere under Marie Stopes and grew in the late 20th century.

The division of labor within households was affected by the increased entry of women into workplaces in the 20th century. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild found that, in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework,[62][63] although Cathy Young responded by arguing that women may prevent equal participation by men in housework and parenting.[64]

Although research suggests that, to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists.[65]

Participation in the CEDAW (By Canuckguy et al. & Allstar86 (attributed per Wikipedia file CEDAW_Participation.svg, as accessed Jul. 26, 2010).)

In international law, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly and described as an international bill of rights for women. It came into force in those nations ratifying it.[66]

In religion, feminist theology reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, sacred texts, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective.[67][68][69] Its goals include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about the deity or deities, and determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood. Most Christian feminists agree that God does not discriminate by sex. New feminism is a branch of difference feminism within Catholicism. Islamic feminism aims for full equality in public and private life, highlights the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran, encourages questioning patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching. and draws on secular and Western feminist discourses. Jewish feminism addresses all major branches of Judaism to open up all-male prayer groups, end exemption from positive time-bound mitzvot, and enable women to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce. The Dianic Wiccan feminism, one faith of many in Wicca, is female-focused and Goddess-centered and teaches witchcraft as every woman's right. In Wicca, "the Goddess" is a deity of prime importance, along with her consort the Horned God. In the earliest Wiccan publications, she is described as a tribal goddess of the witch community, neither omnipotent nor universal, and it was recognised that there was a greater "Prime Mover", although the witches did not concern themselves much with this being. Atheist feminism objects to sexism in all major religions.

Culture

Main article: Feminism in culture

Distinction between sex and gender

The distinction between sex and gender is generally that sex is biological (e.g., chromosomal or morphological) while gender is social or cultural (e.g., how societies structure relationships).[70]

Architecture

Gender-based inquiries into and conceptualization of architecture have also come about, leading to feminism in modern architecture. Piyush Mathur coined the term "archigenderic". Claiming that "architectural planning has an inextricable link with the defining and regulation of gender roles, responsibilities, rights, and limitations", Mathur came up with that term "to explore...the meaning of 'architecture' in terms of gender" and "to explore the meaning of 'gender' in terms of architecture".[71]

Women's writing

Virginia Woolf
Further information: Women's writing in English and Women's literature written in English

Women's writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. In the West, second-wave feminism prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical contributions, and various academic sub-disciplines, such as Women's history (or herstory) and women's writing, developed in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.[72] Virginia Balisn et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in women's writing as "powerful".[72] Much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women.[73]

Feminist science fiction

Main article: Feminist science fiction

In the 1960s the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society. With the advent of feminism, questioning women’s roles became fair game to this "subversive, mind expanding genre".[74] Two early texts are Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) and Joanna Russ' The Female Man (1970). They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating utopias that do away with gender.[75] Both authors were also pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in The Language of the Night (Le Guin, 1979) and How To Suppress Women's Writing (Russ, 1983). Another major work of feminist science fiction has been[76] Kindred by Octavia Butler.

Riot grrrl movement

Main article: Riot Grrrl

Riot grrrl (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with third-wave feminism (it is sometimes seen as its starting point). It was grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values. Riot grrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance.[77] Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.[78] The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls’ standpoints central," allowing them to express themselves fully.[79]

Sexuality

Lesbianism and bisexuality were accepted as part of feminism by a significant proportion of feminists, while others considered sexuality irrelevant to the attainment of other goals. Sexuality, sexual representation, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues arose within acrimonious feminist debates known as the feminist sex wars.

Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. They are generally either critical of it (seeing it as exploitative, a result of patriarchal social structures and reinforcing sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment) or supportive of at least parts of it (arguing that some forms of it can be a medium of feminist expression and a means of women taking control of their sexuality).

Pornography

Further information: Feminist sex wars
See also: Anti-pornography § Feminist objections, and Sex-positive feminism

The "Feminist Sex Wars" is a term for the acrimonious debates within the feminist movement in the late 1970s through the 1980s around the issues of feminism, sexuality, sexual representation, pornography, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues. The debate pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates.[80][81][82][83][84]

Prostitution and trafficking

Main article: Feminist views on prostitution

Feminsts' views on prostitution vary, but many of these perspectives can be loosely arranged into an overarching standpoint that is generally either critical or supportive of prostitution and sex work.[85] Anti-prostitution feminists are strongly opposed to prostitution, as they see the practice as a form of violence against and exploitation of women, and a sign of male dominance over women. Feminists who hold such views on prostitution include Kathleen Barry, Melissa Farley,[86][87]Julie Bindel,[88][89] Sheila Jeffreys, Catharine MacKinnon [90] and Laura Lederer;[91] the European Women's Lobby has also condemned prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence".[92]

Other feminists hold that prostitution and other forms of sex work can be valid choices for women and men who choose to engage in it. In this view, prostitution must be differentiated from forced prostitution, and feminists should support sex worker activism against abuses by both the sex industry and the legal system. The disagreement between these two feminist stances has proven particularly contentious, and may be comparable to the feminist sex wars of the late twentieth century.[93]

Relationship to political movements

In the U.S., feminism, when politically active, formerly aligned largely with the political right, e.g., through the National Woman's Party, from the 1910s to the 1960s, and presently aligns largely with the left, e.g., through the National Organization for Women, of the 1960s to the present, although in neither case has the alignment been consistent.

Socialism

Since the early twentieth century, some feminists have allied with socialism. In 1907, at an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart, suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. Clara Zetkin of the Social Democratic Party of Germany called for women's suffrage to build a "socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question".[94][95][96]

In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the Labour party. In the U.S., Betty Friedan emerged from a radical background to take leadership. Radical Women is the oldest socialist feminist organization in the U.S. and is still active.[97] During the Spanish Civil War, Dolores Ibárruri (La Pasionaria) led the Communist Party of Spain. Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the anarcha-feminist Mujeres Libres.[98]

In Latin America, revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua, where feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.[99]

The end of Communist governments led to changes in Eastern European gender roles.

Fascism

Nazi Germany and the contemporary fascist states illustrate the disastrous consequences for society of a state ideology that, in glorifying traditional images of women, becomes anti-feminist.[100] In Germany, after the rise of Nazism in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the prewar period and to some extent during the 1920s.[citation needed] In Franco's Spain, the right-wing Catholic conservatives undid the work of feminists during the Republic.[citation needed] Fascist society was hierarchical with an emphasis and idealization of virility, with women maintaining a position largely subordinate to men's.[101]

British Fascism, for its part, attracted many women to its ranks.[102] In particular, three prominent suffragette leaders (Mary Allen, Mary Richardson, and Norah Elam) used militant tactics to get votes for women in Britain in the early 1900s, and that had earned them Holloway prison terms, where they underwent hunger and thirst strikes and force feeding in the cause. During the 1930s, all three became prominent leaders in Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists (BUF). Elam became a BUF propagandist, driven by her disillusionment with what she saw as the antiquated Party political system that then dominated. She asserted that women had been given the vote simply to patronize and shut them up, making them think they were taking part in democratic decision-making, and then shrewdly sidelining them and making them politically impotent. Her Fascist propaganda bitterly criticized fellow suffragettes for giving up the feminist agenda and returned time and again to a concern with women's lack of freedom and the lack of influence that any one individual can exert through voting alone. The alternative to democracy she believed the BUF offered was not simply a vague utopian vision. She referred to the practical ideology underlying her Fascist concept. This New Creed, she believed, came in the form of a "Corporate State" which would deliver real equality and participation for all citizens, Corporatism being a system in which various groups in society (economic sectors and professional specializations) are conceived as the essential parts of the state making up the whole, the organs making up the body. The British House of Commons would be made up of representatives from each Corporation. She detailed little.[103] When she was put forward as a candidate for a Parliamentary seat in Northampton in 1936, Mosley accompanied her to Northampton to introduce her to her electorate at a meeting in the Town Hall, where in a public meeting he announced that "[h]e was glad indeed to have the opportunity of introducing the first candidate, and it killed for all time the suggestion that National Socialism proposed putting British women back into the home. Mrs Elam had fought in the past for women's suffrage ... and was a great example of the emancipation of women in Britain".[103] Whether this idea of a Corporate State would ever have produced for women the power to influence public life in the way Elam hoped was never realised in Britain. World War II and its aftermath revealed the full horrors of fascism and what it was capable of and coincided with the demise of the BUF, which never actually fought or won any seats in elections.

Scientific discourse criticism

Some feminists, such as Evelyn Fox Keller, criticize traditional scientific discourse as historically biased towards a masculine perspective,[54] including the idea of scientific objectivity. Primatologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy notes the prevalence of masculinely coined stereotypes and theories, such as of the non-sexual female, despite "the accumulation of abundant openly available evidence contradicting it".[104]

Many feminist scholars rely on qualitative scientific research methods that emphasize women's subjective and individual experiences, including treating research participants as authorities equal to the researcher. Objectivity is eschewed in favor of open self-reflexivity and the agenda of helping women. Also, part of the feminist research agenda is the uncovering of ways in which power inequities are created and/or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions. A feminist approach to research often involves nontraditional forms of presentation.[105]

Biology of gender

Modern feminist science challenges the biological essentialist view of gender. However, it is increasingly interested in the study of biological sex differences and their effect on human behavior. For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book, Myths of Gender, explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that purports to support a biologically essentialist view of gender.[106]

Her second book, Sexing the Body, discussed the alleged possibility of more than two true biological sexes. This possibility only exists in yet-unknown extraterrestrial biospheres, as no ratios of true gametes to polar cells other than 4:0 and 1:3 (male and female, respectively) are produced on Earth. However, in The Female Brain, Louann Brizendine argues that brain differences between the sexes are a biological reality with significant implications for sex-specific functional differences.[107] Steven Rhoads illustrated sex-dependent differences across a wide scope.[108]

Carol Tavris, in The Mismeasure of Woman, uses psychology and sociology to critique theories that use essentialism and biological reductionism to explain differences between men and women. She argues that "women are not the better sex, the inferior sex or the opposite sex", rather she contends that there are ever-changing hypotheses that justify inequality and perpetuate stereotypes.[109]

Cordelia Fine, in Delusions of Gender, argues that there is currently no scientific evidence for innate biological differences between men and women's minds, and that cultural and societal beliefs contribute to commonly perceived sex differences.[110]

Evolutionary biology

Sarah Kember—drawing from numerous areas such as evolutionary biology, sociobiology, artificial intelligence, and cybernetics in development with a new evolutionism—discusses the biologization of technology. She notes how feminists and sociologists have become suspicious of evolutionary psychology, particularly in as much as sociobiology is subjected to complexity in order to strengthen sexual difference as immutable through pre-existing cultural value judgments about human nature and natural selection.[111] Where feminist theory is criticized for its "false beliefs about human nature", Kember then argues in conclusion that "feminism is in the interesting position of needing to do more biology and evolutionary theory in order not to simply oppose their renewed hegemony, but in order to understand the conditions that make this possible, and to have a say in the construction of new ideas and artefacts."[111]

Health

Feminism has led to increased participation by women in the health care they receive (e.g., the book Our Bodies, Ourselves), deliver (e.g., as doctors and midwives), and seek (e.g., lactivism).

Psychology

Feminist therapy is the application of feminist principles to psychotherapy.

Reactions

Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among its supporters and critics. Among American university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more common than self-identification as a feminist. [112][113][114] The US media tends to portray feminism negatively and feminists "are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women." [115][116] Men have responded in each wave of the movement positively and negatively,[117] varying from pro-feminism to masculism, the men's rights movement, and anti-feminism.[118][119][120]

Masculism and Men's Rights Movements

Main article: Masculism

Masculism emerged in the 20th Century as a reaction to the feminist movement in order to address men's interests and rights. The masculist movement encompasses a broad range of views and attitudes towards feminism. Some masculists view masculism as a complementary movement to feminism, with both movements seeking to correct gender discrimination,[121] while other masculists explicitly oppose feminism and support a "new patriarchy."[122] Pro-feminist academics like Michael Flood, Michael Messner, and Michael Kimmel are involved with men's studies.[123][124][125][126][127] Michael Flood, a pro-feminist, has characterized the movement as anti-feminist men's rights activists who "have ridden the wave of right-wing backlashes against “political correctness” and efforts at social justice"[123] [128]

Men as feminists

Philosopher Jeremy Bentham demanded equal rights for women in the 18th century. In 1866, philosopher John Stuart Mill (author of "The Subjection of Women") presented a women's petition to the British parliament and supported an amendment to the 1867 Reform Bill.

Some feminist women maintain that identifying and participating as a feminist is the strongest stand men can take in the struggle against sexism.[129][130][131] Highlighting critical debates about masculinity and gender, the history of men in feminism, and men's roles in preventing violence and sexual assault, a critical analysis of first-person stories by feminist/profeminist men addresses the question of why men should care about feminism in the first place and lays the foundation for a larger discussion about feminism as an all-encompassing human issue,[132] drawing on earlier work.[133] Fidelma Ashe argues that traditional feminist views of male experience and of "men doing feminism" have been monolithic and explores the multiple political discourses and practices of pro-feminist politics and evaluates each strand through an interrogation based upon its effect on feminist politics.[134][135]

In the 21st century, new reactions have emerged from male scholars in gender studies[136][137]

Other feminist women argue that men cannot be feminists, being incapable simply because, in terms of their acculturation, they are not women. They maintain that men are granted inherent privileges that prevent them from identifying with feminist struggles, thus making it impossible for them to identify with feminists.[138]

Pro-feminism

Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also are involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers. Some activists of both genders will not refer to men as "feminists" at all and will refer to all pro-feminist men as "pro-feminists".[139][140]

Criticisms by women of colour, with lower incomes, or not Western

During much of its history, feminist movements and theoretical developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.[24][30][31] However, at least since Sojourner Truth's 1851 speech to American feminists, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms.[30] This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in developing nations and former colonies and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms.[31]

Antifeminism

Antifeminism is the opposition to women's equality[141][142] or the opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.[143] Writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese have been labeled "anti-feminists" by feminists.[144][145] Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that in this way the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism.[146] Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young's books Spreading Misandry and Legalizing Misandry explore what they argue is feminist-inspired misandry.[147] Christina Hoff-Sommers argues feminist misandry leads directly to misogyny by what she calls "establishment feminists" against (the majority of) women who love men in Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women.[148] Marriage rights advocates criticize feminists like Sheila Cronan who take the view that marriage constitutes slavery for women and that freedom for women cannot be won without the abolition of marriage.[149]

See also

References

  1. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminism
  2. ^ http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/feminism
  3. ^ http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861610952
  4. ^ Butler, Judith 1992 Bodies that Matter London: Routledge. 4-12
  5. ^ a b Chodorow, Nancy (1989). Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05116-2.
  6. ^ a b Gilligan, Carol (1977). "'In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality'". Harvard Educational Review. 47 (4): 481–517. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
  7. ^ Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). New York: Totem Books. ISBN 978-1-84046-182-9. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  8. ^ Zajko, Vanda (2006). Laughing with Medusa: Classical Myth and Feminist Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 445. ISBN 0-19-927438-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Howe, Mica; Aguiar, Sarah Appleton (2001). He Said, She Says: An RSVP to the Male Text. Madison N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 292. ISBN 0-8386-3915-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive (Routledge, 2007).
  11. ^ Ettinger, Bracha (2006). The Matrixial Borderspace. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 245. ISBN 0-8166-3587-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Brabeck, M., and Brown, L., with Christian, L., Espin, O., Hare-Mustin, R., Kaplan, A., Kaschak, E., Miller, D., Phillips, E., Ferns, T., and Van Ormer, A. (1997). Feminist Theory and Psychological Practice, in J. Worell and N. Johnson, eds., Shaping the Future of Feminist Psychology: Education, Research, and Practice (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association), pp. 15–35.
  13. ^ Florence, Penny (2001). Differential Aesthetics: Art Practices, Philosophy and Feminist Understandings. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. p. 360. ISBN 0-7546-1493-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Showalter, Elaine (1985). The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-72647-2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  15. ^ Moi, Toril (2002). Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28012-9.
  16. ^ Marx, Karl, trans. B. Fowkes, Capital (Penguin Classics, 1990 (ISBN 978-0-14-044568-8)).
  17. ^ Connolly, Clara (1986). "Feminism and Class Politics: A Round-Table Discussion". Feminist Review (Socialist-Feminism: Out of the Blue): 17. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ a b Echols, Alice (1989). Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 416. ISBN 0-8166-1787-2.
  19. ^ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2002). Quiet Rumours. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-902593-40-1.
  20. ^ Alcoff, Linda (1998). "Cultural Feminism Versus Post-Structuralism: the Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory". Signs. 13 (3). The University of Chicago Press: 32. doi:10.1086/494426. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: unused_data= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Taylor, Verta (1993). "# Women's Culture and Lesbian Feminist Activism: A Reconsideration of Cultural Feminism". Signs. 19 (1). The University of Chicago Press: 30. doi:10.1086/494861. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Ogunyemi, C. O. (1985). "Womanism: The Dynamics of the Black Female Novel in English". Signs. 1 (1): 17.
  23. ^ Kolawole, Mary Ebun Modupe (1997). Womanism and African Consciousness. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press. p. 216. ISBN 0-86543-540-5.
  24. ^ a b Walker, Alice (1983). In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 397. ISBN 0-15-144525-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  25. ^ "Defining Black Feminist Thought". Retrieved May 31, 2007.
  26. ^ Davis, Angela, Women, Race, and Class.
  27. ^ "List of Books written by Black Feminists". Retrieved May 31, 2007.
  28. ^ Baca Zinn, Maxine (2002). "Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism.". In Carole R. McCann & Seung-Kyung Kim (ed.). Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415931525. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ Harding, Sandra (2004). The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94501-1.
  30. ^ a b c Hill Collins, P., Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2000).
  31. ^ a b c Narayan, Uma (1997). Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third-World Feminism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91418-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  32. ^ Obianuju Acholonu, Catherine (1995). Motherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to Feminism. Afa Publ. p. 144. ISBN 9783199714.
  33. ^ Ogundipe-Leslie, Molara (1994). Re-creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical Transformations. Africa World Press. p. 262. ISBN 0865434123.
  34. ^ Nnaemeka, O. (1970). "Feminism, Rebellious Women, and Cultural Boundaries". Research in African Literatures.
  35. ^ Hudson-Weems, Clenora (1994). Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves. Troy, Mich.: Bedford Publishers. p. 158. ISBN 0-911557-11-3.
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  37. ^ "XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography". Retrieved 2008-07-08.
  38. ^ Butler, Judith (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415924993.
  39. ^ Benhabib, Seyla (1995). "From Identity Politics to Social Feminism: A Plea for the Nineties". Philosophy of Education. 1 (2): 14.
  40. ^ Harraway, Donna (1991). "Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century". Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 1853431389.
  41. ^ a b Barbara Johnson (2002). The Feminist Difference: Literature, Psychoanalysis, Race and Gender. Harvard University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0674001915.
  42. ^ Irigaray, Luce (1999). "When Our Lips Speak Together". In Price, Janet (ed.). Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader. Shildrick, Margrit. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92566-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  43. ^ Biehl, Janet (1991). Rethinking Eco-Feminist Politics. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-392-9.
  44. ^ Faludi, Susan, Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man (1999 (pbk. 2000)).
  45. ^ Tong, Rosemarie Putnam, Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2d ed. 1998 (ISBN 0-8133-3295-8)), p. 70.
  46. ^ Daly, Mary, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, pbk. [1st printing? printing of [19]90?] 1978 & 1990 (prob. all content except New Intergalactic Introduction 1978 & prob. New Intergalactic Introduction 1990) (ISBN 0-8070-1413-3)), pp. 27–29 & 35–105 (New Intergalactic Introduction is separate from Introduction: The Metapatriarchal Journey of Exorcism and Ecstasy).
  47. ^ 1 Harv. Women's L.J. 107 (1978) Fathers' Rights and Feminism: The Maternal Presumption Revisited; Uviller, Rena K.
  48. ^ Unwed Fathers' Rights, Adoption, and Sex Equality: Gender-Neutrality and the Perpetuation of Patriarchy
  49. ^ Feminism for Men: Legal Ideology and the Construction of Maleness, N Levit - UCLA L. Rev., 1995 - works.bepress.com
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  51. ^ a b Messer-Davidow, Ellen (2002). Disciplining Feminism: From Social Activism to Academic Discourse. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2843-7. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  52. ^ a b Cornell, Drucilla (1998). At the Heart of Freedom: Feminism, Sex, and Equality. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02896-5.
  53. ^ Campaign: Stop Violence against Women.
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  55. ^ Humm, Maggie (1992). Modern Feminisms: Political, Literary, Cultural. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08072-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus. London: Collins. 2006. ISBN 0-00-722405-2.
  57. ^ Humm, Maggie (1990). The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. p. 278. ISBN 0-8142-0506-2.
  58. ^ Agnes, Michael (2007). Webster's New World College Dictionary. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-7645-7125-7.
  59. ^ Lockwood, Bert B. (2006). Women's Rights: A Human Rights Quarterly Reader. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8374-3.
  60. ^ "FROM SUFFRAGE TO WOMEN'S LIBERATION: FEMINISM IN TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICA by Jo Freeman".
  61. ^ "The National Organization for Women's 1966 Statement of Purpose".
  62. ^ Hochschild, Arlie Russell (2003). The Second Shift. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-200292-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  63. ^ Hochschild, Arlie Russell (2001). The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-6643-2.
  64. ^ Young, Cathy. "The Mama Lion at the Gate". Salon.com. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
  65. ^ Rudman, Laurie A. (2007). "The Interpersonal Power of Feminism: Is Feminism Good for Romantic Relationships?". Sex Roles. 57 (11–12): 787. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9319-9. Retrieved 2008-07-08. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  66. ^ "http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cedaw.htm". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 2009-09-06. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  67. ^ Parsons, Susan Frank (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66380-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  68. ^ Loades, Ann; Armstrong, Karen (1990). Feminist Theology: A Reader. London: SPCK. ISBN 978-0-664-25129-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Watson, Natalie K. (2003). Feminist Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8028-4828-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  70. ^ Tarrant, Shira, When Sex Became Gender (Routledge, 2006),
  71. ^ Mathur, Piyush, in Women's Writing, p. 71 (1998) (British journal) (article).
  72. ^ a b Blain, Virginia (1990). The feminist companion to literature in English: women writers from the Middle Ages to the present. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1231. ISBN 0-300-04854-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  73. ^ Sandra M. Gilbert, "Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel." New York Times, May 4, 1986.
  74. ^ Clute, John (1995). The Encyclopedia of science fiction. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 1386. ISBN 0-312-13486-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  75. ^ Elyce Rae Helford, in Westfahl, Gary. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Greenwood Press, 2005: 290.
  76. ^ Sturgis, Susanna. Octavia E. Butler: June 22, 1947–February 24, 2006: The Women's Review of Books, 23(3): 19 May 2006.
  77. ^ Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin (2004). The F-Word: Feminism In Jeopardy—Women, Politics and the Future. Seal Press. ISBN 1-58005-114-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  78. ^ Rosenberg, Jessica (Spring 1998). "Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from within". Signs. 23 (Feminisms and Youth Cultures): 809. doi:10.1086/495289. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |co-author= ignored (help)
  79. ^ Code, Lorraine (2004). Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. London: Routledge. p. 560. ISBN 10415308852. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
  80. ^ Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. (1995). Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91036-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  81. ^ Hansen, Karen Tranberg; (1990). Women, class, and the feminist imagination: a socialist-feminist reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-630-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Gerhard, Jane F. (2001). Desiring revolution: second-wave feminism and the rewriting of American sexual thought, 1920 to 1982. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11204-1.
  83. ^ Leidholdt, Dorchen; (1990). The Sexual liberals and the attack on feminism. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-037457-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  84. ^ Vance, Carole S. Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. Thorsons Publishers. ISBN 0-04-440593-6.
  85. ^ O’Neill, Maggie (2001) Prostitution and Feminism. Polity Press: Cambridge pp. 14-16
  86. ^ Prostitution: Factsheet on Human Rights Violations. Prostitution Research & Education. Retrieved on 2009-09-03.
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  88. ^ Julie Bindel (18 January 2006). "Eradicate the oldest oppression". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
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  93. ^ Alexander, Priscilla (1997) Feminism, Sex Workers and Human Rights in Nagle, Jill (ed.) Whores and Other Feminists. Routledge: New York: pp. 83-90.
  94. ^ "Rossi, Elisabetta. L'Emancipazione Femminile in Russia Prima e Dopo la Rivoluzione In Difesa del Marxismo Nr. 5".
  95. ^ "The Emancipation of Women in Russia Before and After the Russian Revolution In Defence of Marxism".
  96. ^ Badia, Gilbert (1994). Zetkin. Femminista Senza Frontiere. University of Michigan. p. 320. ISBN 8885378536.
  97. ^ The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure. Seattle, WA: Red Letter Press. 2001. ISBN 0-932323-11-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  98. ^ Ibárruri, Dolores (1938). Speeches & Articles, 1936–1938. University of Michigan. p. 263.
  99. ^ Parpart, Jane L. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development. Ottawa, Canada : International Development Research Centre 2000. p. 215. ISBN 0-88936-910-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  100. ^ Bridenthal, Renate (1984). When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany. New York: Monthly Review Press. p. 364. ISBN 0-85345-642-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  101. ^ Duby, Georges (1994). A History of Women in the West. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 600. ISBN 0-674-40369-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  102. ^ Gottlieb, Julie (2003). Feminine Fascism—Women in Britain's Fascist Movement. IB Taurus & Co Ltd.
  103. ^ a b McPherson, Angela (2010). Mosley's Old Suffragette—A Biography of Norah Elam. ISBN 978-1-4452-7308-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  104. ^ Blaffer Hrdy, Sarah. Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives: Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants and Natural Selection. Pantheon, 1999.
  105. ^ Lindlof, Thomas R., & Taylor, Bryan C., Qualitative Communication Research Methods (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2002 (978-0-7619-2493-7)), p. 357 (authors communication scholars).
  106. ^ Fausto-Sterling, Anne (1992). Myths of Gender: Biological Theories About Women and Men. New York, New York: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-04792-0.
  107. ^ Brizendine, Louann (2007). The Female Brain. Bantam Press. ISBN 9780593058077.
  108. ^ Rhoads, Steven E. (2004). Taking Sex Differences Seriously. San Francisco, California: Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-893554-93-1.
  109. ^ Tavris, Carol. The Mismeasure of Woman: : Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, Inferior or Opposite Sex. Simon & Schuster, 1992.
  110. ^ Fine, Cordelia. Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference. W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.
  111. ^ a b Kember, Sarah (2001). "Resisting the New Evolutionism". Women: a Cultural Review. 12 (1): 8. doi:10.1080/09574040110034075. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  112. ^ Zucker, A. N. (2004), DISAVOWING SOCIAL IDENTITIES: WHAT IT MEANS WHEN WOMEN SAY, “I'M NOT A FEMINIST, BUT …”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28: 423–435. DOI.
  113. ^ Shawn Meghan Burn, Roger Aboud and Carey Moyles, "The Relationship Between Gender Social Identity and Support for Feminism", Sex Roles, Volume 42, Numbers 11-12, 1081-1089, DOI.
  114. ^ Claire M. Renzetti, "New wave or second stage? Attitudes of college women toward feminism ", Sex Roles, Volume 16, Numbers 5-6, 265-277, DOI.
  115. ^ Lind, R. A. and Salo, C. (2002), The Framing of Feminists and Feminism in News and Public Affairs Programs in U.S. Electronic Media. Journal of Communication, 52: 211–228. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2002.tb02540.x
  116. ^ Roy, R. E., Weibust, K. S. and Miller, C. T. (2007), EFFECTS OF STEREOTYPES ABOUT FEMINISTS ON FEMINIST SELF-IDENTIFICATION. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31: 146–156. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00348.x
  117. ^ Lingard, Bob; (1999). Men Engaging Feminisms: Pro-Feminism, Backlashes and Schooling. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-19817-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  118. ^ Digby, Tom (1998). Men Doing Feminism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91625-7.
  119. ^ Farrell, Warren (2007). Does Feminism Discriminate Against Men?: A Debate (Point/Counterpoint). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-531283-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  120. ^ Porter, David (1992). Between Men and Feminism. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06988-5.
  121. ^ query.nytimes.com/gst
  122. ^ The Inevitability of Patriarchy by Steven Goldberg
  123. ^ a b Flood, Michael (7 July 2004). "Backlash: Angry Men's Movements". In Stacey Elin Rossi (ed.). The Battle and Backlash Rage On: Why Feminism Cannot Be Obsolete. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Xlibris Press. p. 17. ISBN 1-4134-5934-X.
  124. ^ Two citations were named Kimmel and which one was meant for this particular context is unknown. See both as cited in this article.
  125. ^ Kimmel, Michael S., Introduction, in Against the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the U.S., 1776–1990, A Documentary History (Boston: Beacon 1992), 1–51.
  126. ^ Messner, Michael A. (1992). Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-4105-5.
  127. ^ Messner, Michael A. (2002). Taking the Field: Women, Men, and Sports. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3449-1.
  128. ^ http://xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20Backlash%20-%20Angry%20men.pdf
  129. ^ Tarrant, Shira, Men and Feminism (Seal Press, 2009),
  130. ^ hooks, bell, Men: Comrades in Struggle, in Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (1984).
  131. ^ Brod, Harry, To Be a Man, or Not to Be a Man—That Is the Feminist Question, in Digby, Tom, ed., Men Doing Feminism (NY: Routledge, 1993), 197–212.
  132. ^ Tarrant, Shira, Men and Feminism (Seal Press, May 2009) (author prof. California State University, Long Beach).
  133. ^ Tarrant, Shira, Men Speak Out: Views on Gender, Sex, and Power (Routledge, 2007).
  134. ^ Ashe, Fidelma (2004). The New Politics of Masculinity. London: Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 0-415-30275-7.
  135. ^ Ashe, Fidelma (2004). "Deconstructing the Experiential Bar". Men and Masculinities. 7 (2): 187. doi:10.1177/1097184X03257524. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  136. ^ Kimmel, Michael S., Who's Afraid of Men Doing Feminism?, in Digby, Tom, ed., Men Doing Feminism (New York: Routledge, 1993), 57–68.
  137. ^ Schacht, Steven P. (1998). Feminism and Men: Reconstructing Gender Relations. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-8077-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  138. ^ Funk, Russ Ervin, The Power of Naming: Why Men Can't Be Feminists, in Feminista!: The Journal of Feminist Construction, vol. 1, no. 4.
  139. ^ Lingard, Bob (1999). Men Engaging Feminisms: Pro-Feminism, Backlashes and Schooling. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. p. 192. ISBN 0-335-19818-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  140. ^ Kimmel, Michael S. (1992). Against the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the United States, 1776–1990: A Documentary History. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-6767-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  141. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA36&dq=antifeminism+Michael+Kimmel&hl=en&ei=1YCrTOCTPM_Gswa6-PGgBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=antifeminism%20Michael%20Kimmel&f=false
  142. ^ http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/?s=antifeminist
  143. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed. 1989), entry Anti-feminist.
  144. ^ Stacey, Judith (2007). "Is Academic Feminism an Oxymoron?". Signs. 25 (Feminisms at a Millennium): 5. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  145. ^ Kamarck Minnich, Elizabeth (2007). "Review: 'Feminist Attacks on Feminisms: Patriarchy's Prodigal Daughters'". Feminist Studies. 24 (1): 26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
  146. ^ Patai, Daphne (2003). Professing Feminism: Education and Indoctrination in Women's Studies. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 0739104551. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  147. ^ Nathanson, Paul; Young, Katherine K. (2006). Legalizing Misandry: From Public Shame to Systematic Discrimination Against Men. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2862-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  148. ^ Sommers, Christina Hoff (1995). Who Stole Feminism?: How Women Have Betrayed Women. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 320. ISBN 0-684-80156-6.
  149. ^ Poloma M. M., Garland T. N. (1971). "The Married Professional Woman: A Study in the Tolerance of Domestication". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 33 (3). Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 33, No. 3: 531–540. doi:10.2307/349850.

Bibliography

  • DuBois, Ellen Carol (1997). Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06562-0. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  • Flexner, Eleanor, Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights Movement in the United States (The Belknap Press, 1996 (ISBN 9780674106539)).
  • Mathur, Piyush, "The Archigenderic Territories: Mansfield Park and A Handful of Dust, in Women's Writing 5:1,71–81 ([2]).
  • Stansell, Christine, The Feminist Promise: 1792 to the Present (2010 (ISBN 978-0-679-64314-2528)), pages.
  • Stevens, Doris (1995). Jailed for Freedom: American Women Win the Vote. Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press. ISBN 978-0-939165-25-2. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Wheeler, Marjorie W. (1995). One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement. Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press. ISBN 978-0-939165-26-0. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
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