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{{More citations needed|date=March 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2019}}
{{Update|date=June 2024|reason=contains no information about concentration camps for Jews in WWII}}
During the [[Italian colonization of Libya]], the [[Kingdom of Italy]] operated several [[Internment|concentration camps]]. During [[World War II]], [[Fascist Italy]] operated several concentration camps and [[Forced labor camp|forced labor camps]] for [[History of the Jews in Libya|Jews in Libya]].


== Background: The beginning of colonization in Libya[edit] ==
== Italian colonization of Libya ==
{{Main|Italian colonization of Libya}}
⚫
The conquest of Libya took place in two phases; the first was considered a more superficial and approximate stage, it began on the 4th of October 1911 under Giovanni [[Giolitti]]’s command. The expansionism would have ensured raw materials and a new land to migrate for italians. Additionally, Italy would have benefit economically from the conquest because it could gain the control of the [[Sahara|Sahra]] trade. However the most determinant argument to conquer LIbya was the southern question that took place in Italy during the 1890s.
{{Infobox civilian attack
⚫
| title = Italian concentration camps in Libya
| partof = [[Second Italo-Senussi War]], [[Libyan genocide]], and [[The Holocaust in Libya]]
| image = Al-Magroon Concentration Camp.jpg
| image_size = 250
| caption = Inmates at the [[El Agheila concentration camp]].
| alt =
| map =
| map_size =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| motive = [[Colonialism]], Suppression of [[Senussis|Senussi]] resistance
| location = [[Libya]]
| target = [[Libyans]]
| coordinates =
| date = 1929 - 1934
| time =
| timezone =
| type = [[internment]]
| fatalities = 50,000 to 70,000
<ref name="Ali Abdullatif">{{Cite book |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YujyDwAAQBAJ |title=Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History |date=2020-08-06 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-16936-2 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref>
| victims = 100,000 to 110,000 deported to concentration camps<ref name=":5"/>
| perps = [[Kingdom of Italy]]
| susperps =
| susperp =
| weapons =
| numparts =
| numpart =
| dfens =
| dfen =
}}


=== Background: The beginning of colonization in Libya ===
⚫
The landless and sharecropping peasants in the south were putting pressure on the Italian ruling elites claiming for land and roting rights. Following a series of riots and rebellions in the south, the ruling classes attempted to find a solution to this problem by relocating Italian peasants in colonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |title=The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1832 |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-1762-X |location=Albania |pages=104-106}}</ref>
⚫
The conquest of Libya took place in two phases; the first was considered a more superficial and approximate stage, it began on the 4th of October 1911 under [[Giovanni Giolitti]]’s command. The expansionism would have ensured raw materials and a new land to migrate for Italians. Additionally, Italy would have benefited economically from the conquest because it could gain control of the [[Sahara|Sahra]] trade. However, the most determinant argument to conquer Libya was the [[southern question]] that took place in Italy during the 1890s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aruffo |first=Alessandro |title=Storia del Colonialismo Italiano: da Crispi a Mussolini |publisher=DATANEWS Editrice |year=2007 |isbn=978-88-7981-315-0 |location=Rome |pages=48–65}}</ref>


⚫
The landless and sharecropping peasants in the south were putting pressure on the Italian ruling elites claiming land and voting rights. Following a series of riots and rebellions in the south, the ruling classes attempted to find a solution to this problem by relocating Italian peasants in colonies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |title=The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1832 |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-1762-X |location=Albania |pages=104–106}}</ref>
⚫
[[Giolitti]] assumed that since Libyans had resented Ottoman rule from 1551 until 1911, Italians would be welcomed by the local population, however, this was not the case. Libyans for a long time placed a strong resistance against the occupation and fought heroically anti-colonial resistance with a strong army of volontiers from 1911 to 1915, then they managed to defeat the Italian army that in 1916 made a truce.


⚫
[[Giolitti]] assumed that since Libyans had resented Ottoman rule from 1551 until 1911, Italians would be welcomed by the local population, however, this was not the case. Libyans for a long time placed a strong resistance against the occupation and fought anti-colonial resistance with an army of volunteers from 1911 to 1915, then they managed to defeat the Italian army that in 1916 made a truce.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-04 |title=Genocide, Historical Amnesia and Italian Settler Colonialism in Libya—An Interview with Ali Abdullatif Ahmida |url=https://merip.org/2022/05/genocide-historical-amnesia-and-italian-settler-colonialism-in-libya-an-interview-with-ali-abdullatif-ahmida/ |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=MERIP |language=en-US}}</ref>
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== Mussolini Regime and the integration of Fascism[edit] ==
⚫
The second phase started with the arrival of Benito [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], an Italian politician, leader and founder of the [[National Fascist Party]]. He rose to power as Prime Minister of Italy from March 1922 until his deposition in 1943. With his arrival he took control over the colonization expenditure and the scale of the occupation escalated.


⚫
=== Mussolini Regime and the integration of Fascism ===
He referred to Libya as “The [[fourth Shore]]” because it represented the fourth side of the national quadrilateral completed by the three coasts of the Adriatic where there are [[Trieste]], [[Bari]] and [[Durrës|Durazzo]].
⚫
The second phase started with the arrival of Benito [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], an Italian politician, leader and founder of the [[National Fascist Party]]. He rose to power as Prime Minister of Italy from March 1922 until his deposition in 1943. With his arrival, he took control over the colonization expenditure and the scale of the occupation escalated.<ref name=":2">{{cite podcast |host= |title=Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History |website=Status |publisher=Spotify |date=August 2020 |url=https://open.spotify.com/episode/0rwhtaEN6ifm6J7VD1tkIU?si=3178d0bdee1045db |access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>


This second phase was more effective. Deadly instruments of war were used because it was clear that in order to empty the land the native population had to be defeated.
He referred to Libya as “The [[Fourth Shore]]” because it represented the fourth side of the national quadrilateral completed by the three coasts of the Adriatic where there are [[Trieste]], [[Bari]] and [[Durrës|Durazzo]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Martin |title=Fourth Shore: Italy's mass colonization of Libya |publisher=Routledge |year=1940 |location=London |pages=129–135}}</ref> Deadly instruments of war were used because it was clear that in order to empty the land, the native population had to be defeated.


The motive behind this colonization was that fascists dreamed of settling 500,000 to 1 million Italians in the “fourth shore”.
The motive behind this colonization was that fascists dreamed of settling 500,000 to 1 million Italians in the “fourth shore”.


The state financed and officially-organized a mass-migration of peasant-farming families on the African coast of the Mediterranean
The state financed and officially organized a mass migration of peasant-farming families on the African coast of the Mediterranean. Amongst the 6,000 families who were admitted “to plead” only 1,800 of them were selected. The requirements were clear, working units - which did not include friends or relations but only close family members - had to be composed of at least 10 members, all healthy and loyal. Additionally, the family had to be experienced in the field of agriculture.<ref name=":2" />


⚫
The settlers desired to migrate as [[Italy]] was becoming over-crowded and there was a strong urge to “own land”. These farms were ready in seven months; the colonists walked into efficiently constructed white farmhouses with irrigating aqueducts, asphalt roads and private lands that averaged thirty-seven acres.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Salerno |first=Eric |title=Genocidio in Libia: le Atrocità nascoste dell'Avventura Coloniale Italiana |publisher=Manifestolibri |year=2005 |isbn=88-7285-389-3 |location=Rome |pages=83–84}}</ref>
Amongst the 6,000 families who were admitted “to plead” only 1,800 of them were selected. The requirements were clear, working-units - which did not include friends or relations but only close family members - had to be composed of at least 10 members, all healthy and loyal. Additionally, the family had to be experienced in the field of agricolture.


⚫
Families were also allowed to visit their village centres, which included churches, cinemas, sports and co-operatives.
⚫
The settlers desired to migrate as Italy was becoming over-crowded and there was a strong urge to “own land”. These farms were ready in seven months; the colonists walked into efficiently executed white farmhouses with irrigating aqueducts, asphalt roads and private lands that averaged to thirty-seven acres.


⚫
Italy was enthusiastic about this project because the country wished to achieve self-sufficiency in the production of corn and oil and furthermore because they had estimated that by 1943 the national population living in Libya would reach 100,000 of which an approximate 40,000 men representing a strong military reserve in a strategic corner of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].<ref name=":3" />
⚫
Family’s were also given the possibility to frequent their village-center that included church, cinema, sports and co-operatives.


⚫
=== Popular Resistance ===
⚫
Italy was enthusiastic about this project because the country wished to achieve self-sufficiency in the production of corn and oil and furthermore because they had estimated that by 1943 the national population living in Libya would reach 100,000 of which an approximate 40,000 men representing a strong military reserve in a strategic corner of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].

⚫
== Population Resistance ==
[[File:Omar al-Mukhtar photo.jpg|thumb|171x171px|Omar al-Mukthar]]
[[File:Omar al-Mukhtar photo.jpg|thumb|171x171px|Omar al-Mukthar]]
However, the Italians had underestimated the resistance of the Ottoman army and in particular of the Libyan population. In fact, even if the government of the country was apparently weak, the society was used to self administrate itself based on religious or sectarian organizations. Once arrived in Libya, the fascists faced a poor yet organized and stubborn resistance that they had to fight for 20 years.
However, the Italians had underestimated the resistance of the Ottoman army and in particular of the Libyan population. In fact, even if the government of the country was apparently weak, the society was used to self administrate itself based on religious or sectarian organizations. Once arrived in Libya, the fascists faced a poor yet organized and stubborn resistance that they had to fight for 20 years.<ref name=":5">{{cite podcast |host=Jeff Bachman |title=Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History" |website=Middle Eastern Studies |publisher=Spotify |date=December 2020 |url=https://open.spotify.com/episode/0goI0WVh9k2LkP6N2sexK2?si=b03d9dd62c894f9c |access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>


The face of the armed Arab opposition, mainly happened in [[Cyrenaica]] under the leadership of [[Omar Mukhtar]], where Italian forces under the Generals [[Pietro Badoglio]] and [[Rodolfo Graziani]] waged punitive pacification campaigns which turned into brutal and bloody acts of [[Political repression|repression]].
The face of the armed Arab opposition mainly happened in [[Cyrenaica]] under the leadership of [[Omar Mukhtar]], where Italian forces under the Generals [[Pietro Badoglio]] and [[Rodolfo Graziani]] waged punitive pacification campaigns which turned into brutal and bloody acts of [[Political repression|repression]].<ref name=":0" />


However, with the arrival of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the generals were given the command to stop compromising with the resistance and to defeat it with violence at whatever cost in order to free the land for settlement.
However, with the arrival of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the generals were given the command to stop compromising with the resistance and to defeat it with violence at whatever cost in order to free the land for settlement.<ref name=":0" />


The [[Frontier Wire (Libya)|Frontier Wire]], a barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of [[Jaghbub|Al-Jaghbub]] to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterward, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people from the mountains of [[Jebel Akhdar (Libya)|Jebel Akhdar]], to deny the rebels the support of the local population.
The [[Frontier Wire (Libya)|Frontier Wire]], a barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of [[Jaghbub|Al-Jaghbub]] to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people from the mountains of [[Jebel Akhdar (Libya)|Jebel Akhdar]], to deny the rebels the support of the local population.<ref name=":2" />


== Mass deportation ==
=== Mass deportation ===
[[File:Deportation of Nomadic Tribes in Cyrenaica.jpg|thumb|Members of the nomadic tribes of Cyrenaica with their herds during their forceful transfer to the Italian concentration camps.]]
[[File: Deportation of Nomadic Tribes in Cyrenaica.jpg|thumb|Members of the nomadic tribes of Cyrenaica with their herds during their forceful transfer to the Italian concentration camps.]]
[[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] maintained several [[concentration camps]] in [[Cyrenaica]] (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. In order to win against the resistance in Libya the Italian troops were ordered to isolate the native.
[[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] maintained several [[concentration camps]] in [[Cyrenaica]] (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. In order to win against the resistance in Libya, the Italian troops were ordered to isolate the native troops.<ref name=":6">Ali Ahmida - The Forgotten Genocide in Libya on the UNE Center for Global Humanities channel on [[YouTube]]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1VYp548TOA</ref>


Furthermore, Italy felt that they had the right to colonize the whole mediterrane because they are the successors of the Roman empire. Mussolini desired to to transplant a new Roman and Fascist civilization within the African land.
Furthermore, Italy felt that they had the right to colonize the whole Mediterranean because they are the successors of the Roman empire. [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] desired to transplant a new Roman and Fascist civilization within the African land.


Firstly a fence along 300,000 miles of the Egyptian border was built in order to cut the supply of primary resources. Shortly after between 100,000 to 110,00 children, women, elderly and 600,000 animals were moved to the [[Sirte Basin|Sirte desert]] in concentration camps in [[Suluq]], [[El Magrun]], [[Abyar, Libya|Abyar]] and [[El Agheila]] where 16 concentration camps had been built and tens of thousands died in squalid conditions.
Firstly a fence along 300,000 miles of the Egyptian border was built in order to cut the supply of primary resources. Shortly after between 100,000 and 110,000 children, women, and elderly people and 600,000 animals were moved to the [[Sirte Basin|Sirte desert]] in concentration camps in [[Suluq]], [[El Magrun]], [[Abyar, Libya|Abyar]] and [[El Agheila]] where 16 concentration camps had been built and tens of thousands died in squalid conditions.<ref name=":5" />


[[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] maintained several [[concentration camps]] in [[Cyrenaica]] (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. After the initial invasion in 1911, the Italian control over much of the country remained ineffective.
[[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] maintained several [[concentration camps]] in [[Cyrenaica]] (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. After the initial invasion in 1911, the Italian control over much of the country remained ineffective.


This destructive period went on from 1929 until 1934. The local population died of starvation, untreated diseases and overall deprivation of support and aid. By the end it was estimated that a mass number of 60,000 to 70,000 people died.
This destructive period went on from 1929 until 1934. The local population died of starvation, untreated diseases and overall deprivation of support and aid. In addition to starvation and disease, people in the camps were traumatized by the continuous public executions of prisoners and by “'''marad'''”. This word describes the physical and psychological trauma caused by the separation of the herds from the seminomad population. In their culture, animal/human unity was essential and seeing that their herds were being left to die of hunger was unbearable.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |title=Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-46889-7 |location=New York |pages=99–120}}</ref> Almost 168,000 animals were captured and killed.<ref name=":4" />


The Libyan population used the word “'''shar'''” to describe the horror of the genocide in the death camps. This word comes from the religious book of the [[Quran|Qur’an]] and it means evil, the opposite of good.
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== Estimates of deaths in concentration camps ==

The survivors released in 1934 were less than 40,000. They were free but stayed under surveillance for 2 years as they could not go back to their houses because they were occupied by Italians.<ref name=":1" />

=== Estimates of deaths in concentration camps ===
[[File:Karte Libyen italienische Konzentrationslager.svg|thumb|Italian concentration camps in Libya 1930–1933]]
[[File:Karte Libyen italienische Konzentrationslager.svg|thumb|Italian concentration camps in Libya 1930–1933]]
Estimates of the people who died in these camps vary. The total number of Libyans who died either through combat or mainly due to starvation and disease is unclear, however, in 1910 the Libyan population was made up of around 1.5 million people while in 1943 it significantly decreased to 800,000.
By the end it was estimated that a total number of 60,000 to 70,000 people died. The total number of Libyans who died either through combat or mainly due to starvation and disease is unclear, however, in 1910 the Libyan population was made up of around 1.5 million people while in 1943 it had significantly decreased to 800,000.<ref name=":6" /> [[Ilan Pappé]] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in camps)."<ref>[[Ilan Pappé]], ''The Modern Middle East.'' Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-21409-2}}, p. 26.</ref> Italian historian [[Emilio Gentile]] estimates 50,000 deaths resulting from the [[Pacification of Libya|suppression]] of resistance.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2011 |title=Un patriota della Cirenaica |url=http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094034/http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |archive-date=11 May 2011 |access-date=24 March 2011 |publisher=retedue.rsi.ch |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[Ilan Pappé]] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in camps)."<ref>[[Ilan Pappé]], ''The Modern Middle East.'' Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-21409-2}}, p. 26.</ref> Italian historian [[Emilio Gentile]] estimates 50,000 deaths resulting from the [[Pacification of Libya|suppression]] of resistance.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2011 |title=Un patriota della Cirenaica |url=http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094034/http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |archive-date=11 May 2011 |access-date=24 March 2011 |publisher=retedue.rsi.ch |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


== Genocide recognition ==
=== Genocide recognition ===
Since the first phase of the colonization Italian media reported a distorted narrative of the conflict. The Italians were depicted as liberators from Ottoman rule, and the repression campaigns, such as the ones following the battle of [[Sciara Sciat]], were hidden from the population. On the other side, the Arabs were descibed as 'beasts' that needed to be civilized by the Europeans.
Since the first phase of colonization, Italian media reported a distorted narrative of the conflict. The Italians were depicted as liberators from Ottoman rule, and the repression campaigns, such as the ones following the battle of [[Sciara Sciat]], were hidden from the population. On the other side, the Arabs were described as 'beasts' that needed to be civilized by the Europeans.<ref name=":1" />


For this reason, for the italian population was difficult to believe to the genocide accusation to the National Fascist colonization capaign in Libya. This part of colonization history is almost and erased memory. Internationally, the Italian people are recognised as people of culture, arts, and beauty, and hence they are thought to be incapable of committing such crimes.
For this reason, it was difficult to convince the Italian population of the genocidal nature of the National Fascist colonization campaign in Libya. This part of colonial history is almost an erased memory. Internationally, the Italian people are recognised as people of culture, arts, and beauty, and hence they are thought to be incapable of committing such crimes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |title=Forgotten Voices: Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya |publisher=Routledge Taylor and Francis Group |year=2005 |isbn=0-415-94987-4 |location=New York |pages= 36–39}}</ref>


Italian [[Fascism]] is still today cosidered moderate in comparison to the [[Nazi Germany|Nazist]] party in [[Germany]], when the truth is that the latter took inspiration from Italian concentration camps and methods of repression.
Italian [[Fascism]] is still today considered moderate in comparison to the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] party in [[Germany]], when the truth is that the latter took inspiration from Italian concentration camps and methods of repression.


However, the Libyan colonization can be considered a genocide because te population was killed intentionally and the cultural, biological and economic basis of the community was completely destroyed and replaced.
However, the Libyan colonization can be considered genocide because the population was killed intentionally and the cultural, biological and economic basis of the community was completely destroyed and replaced.<ref name=":6" />


== 2008 cooperation treaty ==
=== 2008 Cooperation Treaty ===
On 30 August 2008, Gaddafi and [[Italy|Italian]] [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] [[Silvio Berlusconi]] signed a historic Friendship, Partnership and [[cooperation]] [[treaty]] in [[Benghazi|Benghazi.]]<ref name="ansa3">{{cite news |date=2009-06-10 |title=Gaddafi to Rome for historic visit |publisher=[[Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata|ANSA]] |url=http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616155752/http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |archive-date=2009-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2008-08-30 |title=Berlusconi in Benghazi, Unwelcome by Son of Omar Al-Mukhtar |publisher=The Tripoli Post |url=http://www.tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=2335 |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225659/http://www.tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=2335 |archive-date=2013-12-02}}</ref>. Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former military occupation. In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat [[illegal immigration]] coming from its shores and boost [[Investment|investments]] in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to [[Tripoli]] by Berlusconi.<ref name="ansa2">{{cite news |date=2009-06-10 |title=Gaddafi to Rome for historic visit |publisher=[[Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata|ANSA]] |url=http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616155752/http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |archive-date=2009-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2009-03-02 |title=Libya agrees pact with Italy to boost investment |publisher=Alarab Online |url=http://www.alarabonline.org/english/display.asp?fname=2009%5C03%5C03-02%5Czbusinessz%5C988.htm&dismode=x&ts=02/03/2009%2004:42:49%20ã |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618080801/http://www.alarabonline.org/english/display.asp?fname=2009%5C03%5C03-02%5Czbusinessz%5C988.htm&dismode=x&ts=02/03/2009%2004:42:49%20%C3%A3 |archive-date=2009-06-18}}</ref>
On 30 August 2008, Gaddafi and [[Italy|Italian]] [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] [[Silvio Berlusconi]] signed a historic Friendship, Partnership and [[Cooperation]] [[treaty]] in [[Benghazi]] Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former military occupation. In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat [[illegal immigration]] coming from its shores and boost [[investment]]s in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] by Berlusconi.<ref>{{cite news |date=2009-03-02 |title=Libya agrees pact with Italy to boost investment |publisher=Alarab Online |url=http://www.alarabonline.org/english/display.asp?fname=2009%5C03%5C03-02%5Czbusinessz%5C988.htm&dismode=x&ts=02/03/2009%2004:42:49%20ã |url-status=dead |access-date=2009-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618080801/http://www.alarabonline.org/english/display.asp?fname=2009%5C03%5C03-02%5Czbusinessz%5C988.htm&dismode=x&ts=02/03/2009%2004:42:49%20%C3%A3 |archive-date=2009-06-18}}</ref>


The intent was therefore, to put an end to the disputes related to colonialism, but contemporarily, create an advantageous economic condition for Italy.
The intent was therefore, to put an end to the disputes related to colonialism, but contemporarily, create an advantageous economic condition for Italy.

== Camps for Jews in World War II ==
Fascist Italy, aligned with Nazi Germany during World War II, operated a number of concentration camps and labor camps for Libyan Jews. Among them are [[Giado concentration camp|Giado]], [[Buq Buq labor camp|Buq Buq]], and [[Sidi Azaz labor camp|Sidi Azaz]].


==References==
==References==
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{{coord missing|Libya}}
{{coord missing|Libya}}


[[Category: Italian fascist internment camps in Libya]]
[[Category:Italian fascist internment camps in Libya]]
[[Category: Italian Cyrenaica]]
[[Category:Italian Cyrenaica]]
[[Category: World War II sites in Libya]]
[[Category:World War II sites in Libya]]
[[Category: Italy–Libya relations]]
[[Category:Italy–Libya relations]]
[[Category:Genocides in Africa]]
[[Category:Italian war crimes in Libya]]

Revision as of 20:36, 13 July 2024

During the Italian colonization of Libya, the Kingdom of Italy operated several concentration camps. During World War II, Fascist Italy operated several concentration camps and forced labor camps for Jews in Libya.

Italian colonization of Libya

Main article: Italian colonization of Libya
Italian concentration camps in Libya
Part of Second Italo-Senussi War, Libyan genocide, and The Holocaust in Libya
Inmates at the El Agheila concentration camp.
LocationLibya
Date1929 - 1934
TargetLibyans
Attack type
internment
Deaths50,000 to 70,000 [1]
Victims100,000 to 110,000 deported to concentration camps[2]
PerpetratorsKingdom of Italy
MotiveColonialism, Suppression of Senussi resistance

Background: The beginning of colonization in Libya

The conquest of Libya took place in two phases; the first was considered a more superficial and approximate stage, it began on the 4th of October 1911 under Giovanni Giolitti’s command. The expansionism would have ensured raw materials and a new land to migrate for Italians. Additionally, Italy would have benefited economically from the conquest because it could gain control of the Sahra trade. However, the most determinant argument to conquer Libya was the southern question that took place in Italy during the 1890s.[3]

The landless and sharecropping peasants in the south were putting pressure on the Italian ruling elites claiming land and voting rights. Following a series of riots and rebellions in the south, the ruling classes attempted to find a solution to this problem by relocating Italian peasants in colonies.[4]

Giolitti assumed that since Libyans had resented Ottoman rule from 1551 until 1911, Italians would be welcomed by the local population, however, this was not the case. Libyans for a long time placed a strong resistance against the occupation and fought anti-colonial resistance with an army of volunteers from 1911 to 1915, then they managed to defeat the Italian army that in 1916 made a truce.[5]

Mussolini Regime and the integration of Fascism

The second phase started with the arrival of Benito Mussolini, an Italian politician, leader and founder of the National Fascist Party. He rose to power as Prime Minister of Italy from March 1922 until his deposition in 1943. With his arrival, he took control over the colonization expenditure and the scale of the occupation escalated.[6]

He referred to Libya as “The Fourth Shore” because it represented the fourth side of the national quadrilateral completed by the three coasts of the Adriatic where there are Trieste, Bari and Durazzo.[7] Deadly instruments of war were used because it was clear that in order to empty the land, the native population had to be defeated.

The motive behind this colonization was that fascists dreamed of settling 500,000 to 1 million Italians in the “fourth shore”.

The state financed and officially organized a mass migration of peasant-farming families on the African coast of the Mediterranean. Amongst the 6,000 families who were admitted “to plead” only 1,800 of them were selected. The requirements were clear, working units - which did not include friends or relations but only close family members - had to be composed of at least 10 members, all healthy and loyal. Additionally, the family had to be experienced in the field of agriculture.[6]

The settlers desired to migrate as Italy was becoming over-crowded and there was a strong urge to “own land”. These farms were ready in seven months; the colonists walked into efficiently constructed white farmhouses with irrigating aqueducts, asphalt roads and private lands that averaged thirty-seven acres.[8]

Families were also allowed to visit their village centres, which included churches, cinemas, sports and co-operatives.

Italy was enthusiastic about this project because the country wished to achieve self-sufficiency in the production of corn and oil and furthermore because they had estimated that by 1943 the national population living in Libya would reach 100,000 of which an approximate 40,000 men representing a strong military reserve in a strategic corner of the Mediterranean.[7]

Omar al-Mukthar

However, the Italians had underestimated the resistance of the Ottoman army and in particular of the Libyan population. In fact, even if the government of the country was apparently weak, the society was used to self administrate itself based on religious or sectarian organizations. Once arrived in Libya, the fascists faced a poor yet organized and stubborn resistance that they had to fight for 20 years.[2]

The face of the armed Arab opposition mainly happened in Cyrenaica under the leadership of Omar Mukhtar, where Italian forces under the Generals Pietro Badoglio and Rodolfo Graziani waged punitive pacification campaigns which turned into brutal and bloody acts of repression.[4]

However, with the arrival of Mussolini, the generals were given the command to stop compromising with the resistance and to defeat it with violence at whatever cost in order to free the land for settlement.[4]

The Frontier Wire, a barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of Al-Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people from the mountains of Jebel Akhdar, to deny the rebels the support of the local population.[6]

Mass deportation

Members of the nomadic tribes of Cyrenaica with their herds during their forceful transfer to the Italian concentration camps.

Fascist Italy maintained several concentration camps in Cyrenaica (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. In order to win against the resistance in Libya, the Italian troops were ordered to isolate the native troops.[9]

Furthermore, Italy felt that they had the right to colonize the whole Mediterranean because they are the successors of the Roman empire. Mussolini desired to transplant a new Roman and Fascist civilization within the African land.

Firstly a fence along 300,000 miles of the Egyptian border was built in order to cut the supply of primary resources. Shortly after between 100,000 and 110,000 children, women, and elderly people and 600,000 animals were moved to the Sirte desert in concentration camps in Suluq, El Magrun, Abyar and El Agheila where 16 concentration camps had been built and tens of thousands died in squalid conditions.[2]

Fascist Italy maintained several concentration camps in Cyrenaica (Eastern Libya) during the later phase of its occupation of that country. After the initial invasion in 1911, the Italian control over much of the country remained ineffective.

This destructive period went on from 1929 until 1934. The local population died of starvation, untreated diseases and overall deprivation of support and aid. In addition to starvation and disease, people in the camps were traumatized by the continuous public executions of prisoners and by “marad”. This word describes the physical and psychological trauma caused by the separation of the herds from the seminomad population. In their culture, animal/human unity was essential and seeing that their herds were being left to die of hunger was unbearable.[10] Almost 168,000 animals were captured and killed.[8]

The Libyan population used the word “shar” to describe the horror of the genocide in the death camps. This word comes from the religious book of the Qur’an and it means evil, the opposite of good.

The survivors released in 1934 were less than 40,000. They were free but stayed under surveillance for 2 years as they could not go back to their houses because they were occupied by Italians.[3]

Estimates of deaths in concentration camps

Italian concentration camps in Libya 1930–1933

By the end it was estimated that a total number of 60,000 to 70,000 people died. The total number of Libyans who died either through combat or mainly due to starvation and disease is unclear, however, in 1910 the Libyan population was made up of around 1.5 million people while in 1943 it had significantly decreased to 800,000.[9] Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in camps)."[11] Italian historian Emilio Gentile estimates 50,000 deaths resulting from the suppression of resistance.[12]

Genocide recognition

Since the first phase of colonization, Italian media reported a distorted narrative of the conflict. The Italians were depicted as liberators from Ottoman rule, and the repression campaigns, such as the ones following the battle of Sciara Sciat, were hidden from the population. On the other side, the Arabs were described as 'beasts' that needed to be civilized by the Europeans.[3]

For this reason, it was difficult to convince the Italian population of the genocidal nature of the National Fascist colonization campaign in Libya. This part of colonial history is almost an erased memory. Internationally, the Italian people are recognised as people of culture, arts, and beauty, and hence they are thought to be incapable of committing such crimes.[13]

Italian Fascism is still today considered moderate in comparison to the Nazi party in Germany, when the truth is that the latter took inspiration from Italian concentration camps and methods of repression.

However, the Libyan colonization can be considered genocide because the population was killed intentionally and the cultural, biological and economic basis of the community was completely destroyed and replaced.[9]

2008 Cooperation Treaty

On 30 August 2008, Gaddafi and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi signed a historic Friendship, Partnership and Cooperation treaty in Benghazi Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former military occupation. In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat illegal immigration coming from its shores and boost investments in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to Tripoli by Berlusconi.[14]

The intent was therefore, to put an end to the disputes related to colonialism, but contemporarily, create an advantageous economic condition for Italy.

Camps for Jews in World War II

Fascist Italy, aligned with Nazi Germany during World War II, operated a number of concentration camps and labor camps for Libyan Jews. Among them are Giado, Buq Buq, and Sidi Azaz.

References

  1. ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2020-08-06). Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-000-16936-2.
  2. ^ a b c Jeff Bachman (December 2020). "Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History"". Middle Eastern Studies (Podcast). Spotify. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  3. ^ a b c Aruffo, Alessandro (2007). Storia del Colonialismo Italiano: da Crispi a Mussolini. Rome: DATANEWS Editrice. pp. 48–65. ISBN 978-88-7981-315-0.
  4. ^ a b c Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (1994). The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1832. Albania: State University of New York Press. pp. 104–106. ISBN 0-7914-1762-X.
  5. ^ "Genocide, Historical Amnesia and Italian Settler Colonialism in Libya—An Interview with Ali Abdullatif Ahmida". MERIP. 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2022-05-17.
  6. ^ a b c "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History". Status (Podcast). Spotify. August 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  7. ^ a b Moore, Martin (1940). Fourth Shore: Italy's mass colonization of Libya. London: Routledge. pp. 129–135.
  8. ^ a b Salerno, Eric (2005). Genocidio in Libia: le Atrocità nascoste dell'Avventura Coloniale Italiana. Rome: Manifestolibri. pp. 83–84. ISBN 88-7285-389-3.
  9. ^ a b c Ali Ahmida - The Forgotten Genocide in Libya on the UNE Center for Global Humanities channel on YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1VYp548TOA
  10. ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2021). Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History. New York: Routledge. pp. 99–120. ISBN 978-0-367-46889-7.
  11. ^ Ilan Pappé, The Modern Middle East. Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-21409-2, p. 26.
  12. ^ "Un patriota della Cirenaica". retedue.rsi.ch. 1 March 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  13. ^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2005). Forgotten Voices: Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 36–39. ISBN 0-415-94987-4.
  14. ^ "Libya agrees pact with Italy to boost investment". Alarab Online. 2009-03-02. Archived from the original on 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2009-06-10.

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