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{{Short description|Process of producing goods}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2017}}


[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Legnano, 1958) - BEIC 6361475.jpg|thumb|Steelworks of Italy in 1958]]
[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Legnano, 1958) - BEIC 6361475.jpg|thumb|Steelworks of Italy in 1958]]
'''Industrial processes''' are procedures involving [[chemistry|chemical]], [[physics|physical]], [[electronics|electrical]] or [[mechanization|mechanical]] steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.
'''Industrial processes''' are procedures involving [[chemistry|chemical]], [[physics|physical]], [[electronics|electrical]], or [[mechanization|mechanical]] steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.


==Chemical processes==
==Chemical processes by main basic material==
{{Main|Chemical process}}
{{Main|Chemical process}}
Certain chemical process yield important basic materials for society, e.g., ([[cement]], [[steel]], [[aluminum]], and [[fertilizer]]). However, these chemical reactions contribute to [[climate change]] by emitting [[carbon dioxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]], through chemical reactions, as well as through the combustion of [[fossil fuels]] to generate the high temperatures needed to reach the [[activation energy|activation energies]] of the chemical reactions.
* [[Calcination]] – combustion of [[limestone]] to remove the carbon in its [[calcium carbonate]] (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), resulting in useable [[calcium oxide]] (CaO) (also known as quicklime) and releasing carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}). Most prominently used to produce [[cement]], although additionally used to provide a chemical [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]], as in a [[blast furnace]] in the production of [[pig iron]].
* [[Smelting]] – using [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) generally from combusted [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] (a fossil fuel) in a [[blast furnace]] to remove oxygen from [[Ore|ores]], producing pure metal and releasing {{CO2}}. Most prominently used in the production of [[steel]].
* [[Hall–Héroult process]] – smelting aluminum (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) from coke (C) through [[electrolysis]] at high temperatures to yield pure aluminum (Al) and a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and {{CO2}}.
* [[Haber process]] – energy-intensive process for separating atmospheric Nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) to make ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), which is used to make nitrogen [[fertilizer]]. Often requiring a [[fossil fuel]] carbon source to provide the carbon monoxide in a [[water-gas shift reaction]], producing useable [[hydrogen]] (H<sub>2</sub>) and releasing {{CO2}}.
* [[Pyroprocessing]] – using heat to chemically combine materials, such as in [[cement kiln|cement]].
* [[Disinfection]] – chemical treatment to kill bacteria and viruses.


===Cement (the paste within concrete)===
==Electrolysis==
* '''[[Calcination]]''' – [[Limestone]], which is largely composed of fossilized [[calcium carbonate]] (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), breaks down at high temperatures into useable [[calcium oxide]] (CaO) and carbon dioxide gas ({{CO2}}), which gets released as a [[by-product]]. This chemical reaction, called calcination, figures most prominently in creating [[cement]] (the paste within [[concrete]]). The reaction is also important in providing calcium oxide to act as a chemical [[flux (metallurgy)|flux]] (removal of impurities) within a [[blast furnace]].
{{main|Electrolysis}}
:{{chem2|CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)}}


===Steel===
* '''[[Smelting]]''' – Inside a [[blast furnace]], [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) is released by combusting [[coke (fuel)|coke]] (a high-carbon derivative of [[coal]]) and removes the undesired oxygen (O) within [[ore]]s. {{CO2}} is released as a by-product, carrying away the oxygen and leaving behind the desired pure metal. Most prominently, [[blast furnace#Process engineering and chemistry|iron smelting]] is how [[steel]] (largely iron with small amounts of carbon) is created from mined [[iron ore]] and coal.
:{{chem2|Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)}}<ref name="Formulae2">{{cite web |title=Blast Furnace |publisher=Science Aid |url=http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/industrial/blastfurnace.html |access-date=2007-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217143213/http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/industrial/blastfurnace.html |archive-date=17 December 2007}}</ref>

===Aluminium===
* '''[[Hall–Héroult process]]''' – Aluminium oxide ({{chem2|Al2O3}}) is smelted with coke (C) in a high-temperature [[electrolysis]] reaction, yielding the desired pure aluminium (Al) and a mixture of CO and {{CO2}}.
:{{chem2|Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 2 Al(s) + 3 CO(g)}}
:{{chem2|2 Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 4 Al(s) + 3 CO2(g)}}

===Fertilizer===
* '''[[Haber process]]''' – Atmospheric nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) is separated, yielding ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), which is used to make all synthetic [[fertilizer]]. The Haber process uses a [[fossil fuel|fossil]] carbon source, generally [[natural gas]], to provide the CO for the [[water–gas shift reaction]], yielding [[hydrogen]] (H<sub>2</sub>) and releasing {{CO2}}. The H<sub>2</sub> is used to break the strong triple bond in N<sub>2</sub>, yielding [[ammonia production|industrial ammonia]].
:{{chem2|CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3 H2(g)}}
:{{chem2|CO(g) + H2O(g) → H2(g) + CO2(g)}}
:{{chem2|N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)}}

===Other chemical processes===
* [[Disinfection]] – chemical treatment to kill bacteria and viruses
* [[Pyroprocessing]] – using heat to chemically combine materials, such as in [[cement kiln|cement]]

==Electrolysis==
{{Main|Electrolysis}}
The availability of electricity and its effect on materials gave rise to several processes for plating or separating metals.
The availability of electricity and its effect on materials gave rise to several processes for plating or separating metals.
* [[Electrolytic process]] – any process using electrolysis
* [[Gilding]], [[electroplating]], [[anodization]], [[electrowinning]] – depositing a material on an electrode
* [[Electropolishing]] – the reverse of electroplating
* [[Electrofocusing]] – similar to electroplating, but separating molecules
* [[Electrolytic process]] – the generic process of using electrolysis
* [[Electrophoretic deposition]] – electrolytic deposition of colloidal particles in a liquid medium
* [[Electrophoretic deposition]] – electrolytic deposition of colloidal particles in a liquid medium
* [[Electropolishing]] – the reverse of electroplating
* [[Electrotyping]] – using electroplating to produce printing plates
* [[Electrotyping]] – using electroplating to produce printing plates
* [[Gilding]], [[electroplating]], [[anodizing]], [[electrowinning]] – depositing a material on an electrode
* [[Isoelectric focusing]] a.k.a. electrofocusing – similar to electroplating, but separating molecules
* [[Metallizing]], [[plating]], [[spin coating]] – the generic terms for giving non-metals a metallic coating
* [[Metallizing]], [[plating]], [[spin coating]] – the generic terms for giving non-metals a metallic coating
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==Cutting==
==Cutting==
{{Main|Cutting}}

* [[Shearing (manufacturing)|Shearing]]
* [[Sawing]]
* [[Plasma cutting]]
* [[Water-jet cutting]] - cutting materials using a very high-pressure jet of water
* [[Oxyacetylene|Oxyacetylene cutting]]
* [[Electrical discharge machining]] (EDM)
* [[Electrical discharge machining]] (EDM)
* [[Machining]] – the mechanical cutting and shaping of metal which involves the loss of the material
* [[Laser cutting]]
* [[Laser cutting]]
* [[Machining]] – the mechanical cutting and shaping of metal which involves the loss of the material
* [[Oxy-fuel welding and cutting]]
* [[Plasma cutting]]
* [[Sawing]]
* [[Shearing (manufacturing)|Shearing]]
* [[Water-jet cutting]] – cutting materials using a very high-pressure jet of water


==Metalworking==
==Metalworking==
{{See also|Fabrication (metal)|Metalworking}}
{{Main|Metalworking}}
{{See also|Metal fabrication}}
* [[Smelting]] and [[direct Reduction]] – extracting metals from ores.
* [[Case-hardening]], [[differential hardening]], [[shot peening]] – creating a wear-resistant surface
* [[Casting]] – shaping of a liquid material by pouring it into moulds and letting it solidify
* [[Die (manufacturing)|Die cutting]] – A "forme" or "die" is pressed onto a flat material in order to cut, score, punch and otherwise shape the material
* [[Electric arc furnace]] — very-high-temperature processing
* [[Forging]] – the shaping of metal by use of heat and hammer
* [[Forging]] – the shaping of metal by use of heat and hammer
* [[Casting]] – shaping of a liquid material by pouring it into moulds and letting it solidify
* [[Steelmaking]] — turning "pig iron" from smelting into steel
* [[Progressive stamping]] – the production of components from a strip or roll
* [[Stamping (metalworking)|Stamping]]
* [[Hydroforming]] – a tube of metal is expanded into a mould under pressure
* [[Hydroforming]] – a tube of metal is expanded into a mould under pressure
* [[Precipitation hardening]] – heat treatment used to strengthen malleable materials
* [[Progressive stamping]] – the production of components from a strip or roll
* [[Sandblasting]] – cleaning of a surface using sand or other particles
* [[Sandblasting]] – cleaning of a surface using sand or other particles
* [[Smelting]] and direct reduction – extracting metals from ores
* [[Soldering]], [[brazing]], [[welding]] – a process for joining metals
* [[Soldering]], [[brazing]], [[welding]] – a process for joining metals
* [[Stamping (metalworking)|Stamping]]
* [[Steelmaking]] – turning "pig iron" from smelting into steel
* [[Tumble polishing]] – for polishing
* [[Tumble polishing]] – for polishing
* [[Precipitation hardening]] – heat treatment used to strengthen malleable materials
* [[Work hardening]] – adding strength to metals, alloys, etc.
* [[Work hardening]] – adding strength to metals, alloys, etc.
* [[Case hardening]], [[differential hardening]], [[shot peening]] – creating a wear-resistant surface
* [[Die (manufacturing)|Die cutting]] – A "forme" or "die" is pressed onto a flat material in order to cut, score, punch and otherwise shape the material
* [[Electric arc furnace]] — very-high-temperature processing


===Iron and steel===
===Iron and steel===
* [[Basic oxygen steelmaking]]
* [[Smelting]] – the generic process used in furnaces to produce steel, copper, etc.
* [[Bessemer process]]
* [[Catalan forge]], [[open hearth furnace]], [[bloomery]], [[Siemens regenerative furnace]] – produced wrought iron
* [[Blast furnace]] – produced cast iron
* [[Blast furnace]] – produced cast iron
* [[Catalan forge]], [[open hearth furnace]], [[bloomery]] – produced wrought iron
* [[Direct Reduction]] – produced [[direct reduced iron]]
* [[Cementation process]]
* [[Crucible steel]]
* [[Crucible steel]]
* Direct reduction – produced [[direct reduced iron]]
* [[Cementation process]]
* [[Smelting]] – the process of using furnaces to produce steel, copper, etc.
* [[Bessemer process]]
* [[Basic oxygen steelmaking]], [[Linz-Donawitz process]]


==Moulding==
==Molding==
{{Main|Molding (process)}}
The physical shaping of materials by forming their liquid form using a mould.
The physical shaping of materials by forming their liquid form using a mould
* [[Blow molding]] as in [[plastic container]]s or in the [[glass container industry]] – making hollow objects by blowing them into a mould
* [[Casting]], [[sand casting]] – the shaping of molten metal or plastics using a mould
* [[Casting]], [[sand casting]] – the shaping of molten metal or plastics using a mould
* [[Compression molding]]
* [[Sintering]], [[powder metallurgy]] – the making of objects from metal or ceramic powder
* [[Sintering]], [[powder metallurgy]] – the making of objects from metal or ceramic powder
* [[Blow molding]] as in [[plastic container]]s or in the [[glass container industry]] – making hollow objects by blowing them into a mould.
* [[Compression molding]]


==Separation==
==Separation==
Many materials exist in an impure form, purification, or separation provides a usable product.
Many materials exist in an impure form. Purification or separation provides a usable product.
* [[Comminution]] – reduces the size of physical particles (it exists between crushing and grinding)
* [[Comminution]] – reduces the size of physical particles (it exists between crushing and grinding)
* [[Frasch process]] – for extracting molten sulfur<!-- see: Sulfur#Spelling --> from the ground
* [[Froth flotation]], [[flotation process]] – separating minerals through flotation
* [[Froth flotation]], [[flotation process]] – separating minerals through flotation
* [[Liquid–liquid extraction]] – dissolving one substance in another
* [[Liquid–liquid extraction]] – dissolving one substance in another
* [[Frasch process]] – for extracting molten sulfur <!-- see: Sulfur#Spelling --> from the ground


==Distillation==
==Distillation==
[[Distillation]] is the purification of [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] substances by [[evaporation]] and [[condensation]]
[[Distillation]] is the purification of [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] substances by [[evaporation]] and [[condensation]]
* [[Fractional distillation]], [[steam distillation]], [[vacuum distillation]]
* [[Batch distillation]]
* [[Batch distillation]]
* [[Continuous distillation]]
* [[Continuous distillation]]
* [[Fractional distillation]], [[steam distillation]], [[vacuum distillation]]
* [[Fractionating column]]
* [[Fractionating column]]
* [[Spinning cone]]
* [[Spinning cone]]
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In [[additive manufacturing]], material is progressively added to the piece until the desired shape and size are obtained.
In [[additive manufacturing]], material is progressively added to the piece until the desired shape and size are obtained.
* [[Fused deposition modeling]] (FDM)
* [[Fused deposition modeling]] (FDM)
* [[Stereolithography]] (SLA)
* [[Selective laser sintering]] (SLS)
* [[Photolithography]]
* [[Photolithography]]
* [[Selective laser sintering]] (SLS)
* [[Stereolithography]] (SLA)


==Petroleum and organic compounds==
==Petroleum and organic compounds==
The nature of an organic molecule means it can be transformed at the molecular level to create a range of products.
The nature of an organic molecule means it can be transformed at the molecular level to create a range of products.
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]] – the generic term for breaking up the larger molecules
* [[Alkylation]] – refining of crude oil
* [[Alkylation]] – refining of crude oil
* [[Burton process]] – cracking of hydrocarbons
* [[Burton process]] – cracking of hydrocarbons
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]] – the generic term for breaking up the larger molecules
* [[Cumene process]] – making phenol and acetone from benzene
* [[Cumene process]] – making phenol and acetone from benzene
* [[Friedel-Crafts reaction]], [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]]
* [[Friedel–Crafts reaction]], [[Kolbe–Schmitt reaction]]
* [[Olefin metathesis]], [[thermal depolymerization]]
* [[Olefin metathesis]], [[thermal depolymerization]]
* [[Oxo process]] – produces aldehydes from alkenes
* [[Polymerization]]
* [[Raschig hydroxylamine process]] – produces [[hydroxylamine]], a precursor of nylon
* [[Transesterification]] – organic chemicals
* [[Transesterification]] – organic chemicals
* [[Raschig hydroxylamine process|Raschig process]] for production of [[hydroxylamine]] – part of the process to produce nylon
* [[Oxo process]] – Produces aldehydes from alkenes
* [[Polymerisation]]


==Organized by product==
==Others==
Organized by product:
<!-- alphabetized by product -->
* Aluminium – ( [[Hall-Héroult process]], [[Deville process]], [[Bayer process]], [[Wöhler process]])
<!-- started alphabetizing by product -->
* Aluminium – ([[Deville process]], [[Bayer process]], [[Hall-Héroult process]], [[Wöhler process]])
* [[Ammonia]], used in [[fertilizer]] – ([[Haber process]])
* [[Ammonia]], used in fertilizer & explosives – ([[Haber process]])
* [[Bromine]] – ([[Dow process (bromine)|Dow process]])
* [[Chlorine]], used in chemicals – ([[chloralkali process]], [[Weldon process]], [[sodium hypochlorite#Production|Hooker process]])
* [[Bromine]] – ([[Dow process]])
* [[Chlorine]], used in chemicals – ([[chloralkali process]], [[Weldon process]], [[Sodium hypochlorite#Production|Hooker process]])
* Fat – ([[rendering (industrial)|rendering]])
* Fat – ([[rendering (industrial)|rendering]])
* [[Fertilizer]] – ([[nitrophosphate process]])
* [[Fertilizer]] – ([[nitrophosphate process]])
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* [[Graphite]] – ([[Acheson process]])
* [[Graphite]] – ([[Acheson process]])
* [[Heavy water]], used to refine radioactive products – ([[Girdler sulfide process]])
* [[Heavy water]], used to refine radioactive products – ([[Girdler sulfide process]])
* [[Hydrogen]] – ([[steam reforming]], [[water gas shift reaction]])
* [[Hydrogen]] – ([[water–gas shift reaction]], [[steam reforming]])
* Lead (and [[Bismuth]]) – ([[Betts electrolytic process]], [[Betterton-Kroll process]])
* Lead (and [[bismuth]]) – ([[Betts electrolytic process]], [[Betterton-Kroll process]])
* [[Nickel]] – ([[Mond process]])
* [[Nickel]] – ([[Mond process]])
* [[Nitric acid]] – ([[Ostwald process]])
* [[Nitric acid]] – ([[Ostwald process]])
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* Rubber – ([[vulcanization]])
* Rubber – ([[vulcanization]])
* Salt – ([[Alberger process]], [[Grainer evaporation process]])
* Salt – ([[Alberger process]], [[Grainer evaporation process]])
* [[Semiconductor]] crystals – ([[Bridgeman technique]], [[Czochralski process]])
* [[Semiconductor]] crystals – ([[Bridgman–Stockbarger method]], [[Czochralski method]])
* Silver – ([[Patio process]], [[Parkes process]])
* Silver – ([[Patio process]], [[Parkes process]])
* [[Silicon carbide]] – ([[Acheson process]], [[Lely process]])
* [[Silicon carbide]] – ([[Acheson process]], [[Lely process]])
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* [[Sulfuric acid]] – ([[lead chamber process]], [[contact process]])
* [[Sulfuric acid]] – ([[lead chamber process]], [[contact process]])
* [[Titanium]] – ([[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]])
* [[Titanium]] – ([[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]])
* [[Zirconium]] – ([[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]], [[crystal bar process]], [[iodide process]])
* [[Zirconium]] – ([[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]], [[van Arkel–de Boer process]])


A list by process:
A list by process:
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* [[Bayer process]] – the extraction of aluminium from ore
* [[Bayer process]] – the extraction of aluminium from ore
* [[Chloralkali process]], [[Weldon process]] – for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide
* [[Chloralkali process]], [[Weldon process]] – for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide
* [[Crystal bar process]], [[iodide process]] – produces zirconium
* [[Dow process (bromine)|Dow process]] – produces bromine from brine
* [[Dow process]] – produces bromine from brine
* [[Formox process]] – oxidation of methanol to produce formaldehyde
* [[FFC Cambridge Process]]
* [[Girdler sulfide process]] – for making heavy water
* [[Girdler sulfide process]] – for making heavy water
* [[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]] – produces titanium and zirconium
* [[Hunter process]], [[Kroll process]] – produces titanium and zirconium
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* [[Steam reforming]], [[water gas shift reaction]] – produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide from methane or hydrogen and carbon dioxide from water and carbon monoxide
* [[Steam reforming]], [[water gas shift reaction]] – produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide from methane or hydrogen and carbon dioxide from water and carbon monoxide
* [[Vacuum metalising]] – a finishing process
* [[Vacuum metalising]] – a finishing process
* [[Van Arkel–de Boer process]] – for producing titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, thorium, or protactinium
* [[Perstorp Group|Perstorp]] [[Formox process]] – oxidation of methanol to produce formaldehyde


== See also ==
==See also==
* [[Chemical engineering]]
* [[Chemical engineering]]
* [[Industrial Extraction]]
* [[Mass production]]
* [[Mass production]]
* [[Multilevel Flow Modeling]]
* [[Process (engineering)]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


{{Industries}}
{{Industries}}


{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Industrial Processes}}
[[Category:Industrial processes| ]]
[[Category:Industrial processes| ]]
[[Category:Industry]]
[[Category:Industry-related lists|processes]]
[[Category:Management cybernetics]]
[[Category:Secondary sector of the economy]]
[[Category:Technology-related lists]]
[[Category:Technology-related lists]]
[[Category:Industry-related lists]]

Latest revision as of 08:54, 10 April 2024

Steelworks of Italy in 1958

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical, physical, electrical, or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Chemical processes by main basic material[edit]

Main article: Chemical process

Certain chemical process yield important basic materials for society, e.g., (cement, steel, aluminum, and fertilizer). However, these chemical reactions contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, through chemical reactions, as well as through the combustion of fossil fuels to generate the high temperatures needed to reach the activation energies of the chemical reactions.

Cement (the paste within concrete)[edit]

  • Calcination – Limestone, which is largely composed of fossilized calcium carbonate (CaCO3), breaks down at high temperatures into useable calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2), which gets released as a by-product. This chemical reaction, called calcination, figures most prominently in creating cement (the paste within concrete). The reaction is also important in providing calcium oxide to act as a chemical flux (removal of impurities) within a blast furnace.
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Steel[edit]

  • Smelting – Inside a blast furnace, carbon monoxide (CO) is released by combusting coke (a high-carbon derivative of coal) and removes the undesired oxygen (O) within ores. CO2 is released as a by-product, carrying away the oxygen and leaving behind the desired pure metal. Most prominently, iron smelting is how steel (largely iron with small amounts of carbon) is created from mined iron ore and coal.
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)[1]

Aluminium[edit]

  • Hall–Héroult process – Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is smelted with coke (C) in a high-temperature electrolysis reaction, yielding the desired pure aluminium (Al) and a mixture of CO and CO2.
Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 2 Al(s) + 3 CO(g)
2 Al2O3(s) + 3 C(s) → 4 Al(s) + 3 CO2(g)

Fertilizer[edit]

CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3 H2(g)
CO(g) + H2O(g) → H2(g) + CO2(g)
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

Other chemical processes[edit]

Electrolysis[edit]

Main article: Electrolysis

The availability of electricity and its effect on materials gave rise to several processes for plating or separating metals.

Cutting[edit]

Main article: Cutting

Metalworking[edit]

Main article: Metalworking
See also: Metal fabrication

Iron and steel[edit]

Molding[edit]

Main article: Molding (process)

The physical shaping of materials by forming their liquid form using a mould

Separation[edit]

Many materials exist in an impure form. Purification or separation provides a usable product.

Distillation[edit]

Distillation is the purification of volatile substances by evaporation and condensation

Additive manufacturing[edit]

In additive manufacturing, material is progressively added to the piece until the desired shape and size are obtained.

Petroleum and organic compounds[edit]

The nature of an organic molecule means it can be transformed at the molecular level to create a range of products.

Organized by product[edit]

A list by process:

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Blast Furnace". Science Aid. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
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