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[[Image:Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness, by [[Karel Dujardin]]]]
'''Ishmael''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''יִשְׁמָעֵאל''', <small>[[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Standard]]</small> {{unicode|Yišmaʿel}} <small>[[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]]</small> {{unicode|Yišmāʿêl}}; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''إسماعيل''', Ismā'īl) was [[Abraham]]'s eldest son, born by his wife's [[handmaiden]] [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]]. Though born of Hagar, according to [[Mesopotamian]] law, Ishmael was credited as [[Sarah]]'s son (Gn. 16:2)<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"> Fredrick E. Greenspahn, Encyclopedia of Religion, ''Ishmael'', p.4551-4552 </ref> According to the [[Genesis]] account, he died at the age of 137 (Gn. 25:17).<ref name="Catholic1913"/>

Both Jewish and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael as the ancestor of [[Arab|Arab people]]. <ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/>

[[Judaism]] has generally viewed Ishmael as the son of Abraham.<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> Jews and Christians (the House of Israel) maintain that [[Isaac]], Abraham's son by [[Sarah|Sarah the free woman]] and the father of all Israel, rather than Ishmael was the true heir. This is supported in Genesis chapter 21 "in Isaac shall the seed be called".<ref name="Britannica and KJ Bible"/> [[New Testament|The New Testament]] contains a reference to Ishmael where Paul defines the difference in Isaac and Ishmael in Galatians chapter 4. Biblically, Ishmael is used to symbolize the bondwoman - not free - Isaac symbolizes those that have freedom to choose, asserting such freedom is found in Christianity.<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> Islamic tradition, however, has a very positive view of Ishmael, giving him a larger and more significant role. The [[Qur'an]] views Isaac and Ishmael as prophets. According to the interpretation of certain early Islamic theologians, whose view prevailed later, Ishmael was the actual son that Abraham was called on to sacrifice, as opposed to Isaac. In the [[Bible]] story God tested Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac. The story reflects the same story as given in Genesis where there is an evil older brother and the chosen younger brother. This is evidenced again in Esau and Jacob, where Esau sells his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of [[lentil soup]].<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/><ref name="EoI-Ishaq"> [[William Montgomery Watt]], [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], ''Ishaq''</ref>

==Etymology and meaning==
Cognates of Hebrew ''Yishm'e'l'' existed in various ancient Semitic cultures.<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> For example, it is known that the name was used in early [[Babylonian]] and in [[Minæan]].<ref name="Catholic1913"/> It is translated literally as "[[El (god)|God]] has heard", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise."<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> Hebrew [[Šimʿon]] and [[Samuel]] are from the same root.

==Hebrew Bible==
''See also'': ''[[Isaac#Hebrew Bible|Account of Isaac in the Hebrew Bible]]''
[[Image:Pieter Pietersz. Lastman 001.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The dismissal of Hagar, by [[Pieter Pietersz Lastman]]]]
[[Image:Expulsion of Ishmael and His Mother.png|thumb|220px|right|Expulsion of Ishmael and His Mother, from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrated Bible of 1866.]]

Chapters 16-25 of the book of Genesis contain the stories of Ishmael.<ref name="Catholic1913"/> [[Historian]]s and [[academic]]s in the fields of [[linguistic]]s and [[source criticism]] believe that the stories of Ishmael belong to the three strata of J, or Yahwist source, the P, or [[Priestly source]], and the E, or [[Elohist source]] (See [[Documentary hypothesis]]). <ref name="Catholic1913"/>For example, The narration in {{niv|Genesis|16|Genesis 16}} is of J type and the narration in {{niv|Genesis|21:8-21|Genesis 21:8-21}} is of E type. <ref> S. Nikaido(2001), p.1</ref>

;The account of the life of Ishmael according to [[Hebrew Bible|the Hebrew Bible]]

According to the Bible, [[Sarah]] ([[Abraham]]'s wife) was childless, yet desired a son. She offers her maidservant [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]] to Abraham as a surrogate. Customs of the time dictated that, although Hagar was the [[Mother|birth mother]], any child conceived would belong to Sarah and Abraham. <ref name="Britannica">"Hagar." [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. </ref> <ref> Gn 16:2</ref>

Hagar became pregnant and proud of herself, which resulted in harsh treatment by Sarah. Hagar fled and ran into the wilderness, where an angel appeared to her by a spring of water. <ref name="Britannica"/> The angel of the Lord told her to return, adding that God would increase her descendants through a son whose name would be Ishmael. The angel told Hagar that Ishmael would become "a wild donkey of a man" (the "wild donkey" in Hebrew being a zebra) and would be in constant struggle with others.<ref name="Britannica"/>

So Hagar returned to Abraham's house, and had a son whom she named Ishmael.<ref name="Britannica"/> Abraham was 86 years old when Ishmael was born.<ref> [http://www.who2.com/abraham.html Personalities biography of Abraham at Who2, LLC]</ref> Abraham, obeying God's commandment, circumcised Ishmael when he was thirteen. <ref name="JewishEnc"> [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=277&letter=I&search=Ishmael ''Ishmael''] </ref> The next year, Abraham's wife Sarah became pregnant with his second son, Isaac.<ref name="Britannica"/> One day Sarah was angered by seeing Ishmael mocking or playing with Isaac (the Hebrew word is ambiguous<ref> [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=53&letter=H&search=Hagar Hagar], Jewish Encyclopedia </ref>),<ref name="Catholic1913"> [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Ismael Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)] </ref> and she asked Abraham to expel him and his mother, saying: "Get rid of that slave woman and her son, for that slave woman's son will never share in the inheritance with my son Isaac."<ref name="Britannica"/> <ref> Genesis 21:8-10 </ref> Ishmael was very dear to Abraham and he initially refused to do as Sarah asked.<ref name="Catholic1913"/> He finally gave in to his wife's request when God told him that He would take care of Ishmael, since he was a descendant of Abraham.<ref name="JewishEnc"/><ref> Genesis 21:11-13 </ref> Abraham provided Hagar and her child with bread and a bottle of water and sent her into the desert.<ref name="JewishEnc"/><ref>Columbia Encyclopedia, ''Ishmael'' </ref> Hagar, with her son, wandered in the wilderness and ran out of water. When they were reduced to great distress, an angel appeared and showed Hagar a spring of water saying "What is the matter, Hagar? Do not be afraid; God has heard the boy crying as he lies there. Lift the boy up and take him by the hand, for I will make him into a great nation."<ref name="JewishEnc"/><ref> Genesis 21:17-21 </ref>

They lived in the wilderness of Paran, where Hagar's son became an expert in [[archery]]. His mother married him to an [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] woman.<ref name="JewishEnc"/> According to the Bible, Ishmael had 12 sons who became twelve tribal chiefs. The twelve sons of Ishmael, were named [[Nebaioth]], [[Kedar]], [[Adbeel]], [[Mibsam]], [[Mishma]], [[Dumah]], [[Massa (Biblical person)|Massa]], [[Hadad (Bible)|Hadad]], [[Tema (Son of Ishmael)|Tema]], [[Jetur]], [[Naphish]], and [[Kedemah]] (See {{niv|Genesis|25|Genesis 25}}) <ref name="Catholic1913"/> Ishmael's sons settled everywhere from [[Havilah]] to [[Shur]], i.e. from [[Assyria]] to the border of Egypt.<ref name="JewishEnc"/> Ishmael also had a daughter named Mahalath who married [[Esau]].<ref> [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=386&letter=B&search=Mahalath Jewish Encyclopedia], ''Mahalath'' </ref>. Ishmael also appears with Isaac at the burial of Abraham.<ref name="JewishEnc"/><ref> {{niv|Genesis|25:9|Genesis 25:9}} </ref> Ishmael died at the age of 137. <ref name="Catholic1913"/>

==Jewish traditions==
: ''see also'' [[Hagar (Bible)#Hagar in Jewish mysticism| Hagar in Jewish mysticism]], [[Isaac#Jewish traditions|Isaac in Jewish traditions]]
Judaism has generally viewed Ishmael as wicked though repentant.<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> According to the [[Haggadah]] Ishmael was as an idolater and a "brother-hater, who becomes ill from Sarah's [[evil eye]]."<ref name="BrillNewPoly"> Yvonne Domhardt,''"Ishmael, Ishmaelites"'', Brill's New Pauly </ref> Ishmael later repents and comes to revere his brother Isaac.<ref name="BrillNewPoly"/>

In some Rabbinic traditions Ishmael is said to have had two wives named Aisha and Fatima. Those names correspond to the Muslim tradition for the names of Muhammad's wife and daughter.<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> This is understood as a metaphoric representation of the Muslim world (first Arabs and then Turks) with Ishmael. <ref> Shalom Paul in The [[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford Dictionary]] of Jewish Religion, p.358 </ref>

[[Israelites|The Israelites]] regarded the supposedly freedom-loving and bellicose descendants of Ishmael as inferior because Abraham had expelled Ishmael and his mother.<ref name="BrillNewPoly"/><ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/>

In the Hebrew Bible, in Gen. 37:25-28, Joseph is sold to traders who are identified first as Ishmaelites, and then as Midianites, which lends support to the idea that the Ishmaelites either became the Midianites or were absorbed by them.

==New Testament==
: ''see also'' [[Hagar (Bible)#Hagar in the New Testament|Hagar in the New Testament]], [[Isaac#New Testament|Isaac in New Testament]]
According to the Genesis account, Ishmael and his mother were expelled at the instigation of Sarah, in order to make sure that Isaac would be Abraham's heir. In the [[Epistle to the Galatians|book of Galatians]], Paul uses the incident "to symbolize the relationship between Judaism, the older but now rejected tradition, and Christianity." (Gal 4:21-31)<ref name="EoR-Ishmael"/> In [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] 4:28-31,<ref>{{niv|Galatians|4:28-31|Galatians 4:28-31}}</ref> [[Hagar]] is associated with the [[Sinai]] covenant, while [[Sarah]] is associated with the covenant of grace (into which her son Isaac enters).<ref name="EoC-Isaac">Encyclopedia of Christianity(Ed. John Bowden), Isaac </ref>

==Islam ==
{{main|Islamic view of Ishmael}}
: ''see also'': [[Hagar (Bible)#Hagar in Islamic traditions|Hagar in Islamic traditions]]

Ishmael (Arabic: ''Ismā'īl'') is a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet]] in [[Islam]]. The Qur'an considers him to be a son of Abraham.<ref> Certain Western scholars have suggested that Muhammad was not aware of this connection in the early period of his preaching. Their argument is that in the early verses of the Qur'an, Ishmael appears in lists mentioning prophets like [[Jonah]], [[Lot]] and [[Idris]] without any association with Abraham. (e.g. see {{cite quran|6|86|style=ref}},{{cite quran|21|85|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|38|48|style=ref}}). Reuven Firestone in [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]] says that there is some evidence to the contrary of claim of those western scholars.</ref> His name appears twelve times in the Qur'an mostly in a list<ref> The Qur'an generally lists Ishmael in the formula: “Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes” (e.g. see {{cite quran|2|136|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|84|style=ref}}), sometimes as "Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac". In verse {{cite quran|2|133|style=ref}} Ishmael is mentioned as “Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac” and in some other lists Ishmael's name is absent from the list :"Abraham, Isaac and Jacob" such as {{cite quran|6|84|style=ref}};{{cite quran|12|38|style=ref}} cf ''Ishmael'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]]</ref> with other prophets "as part of a litany of remembrances in which the pre-Muhammad prophets are praised for their resolute steadfastness and obedience to God, often in the face of adversity."<ref name="EoQ_Ishmael"> ''Ishmael'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]] </ref>

Both Jewish and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael as the ancestor of Arab people. According to the Muslim tradition, Muhammad was a descendant of Ishmael through his son Kedar.<ref name="JewishEnc"/>
[[Image:Kaba.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Islamic traditions hold that the Ka'aba was rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael.]]
Abraham and Ishmael are said to have built the foundations of the [[Ka'aba]] ("They were raising the foundations of [[Ka'aba|the House]]", {{cite quran|2|127|style=ref}}).<ref name="EoQ_Ishmael"/> Islamic traditions hold that the Ka'aba was first built by the first man, [[Adam]]. Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations. <ref>Azraqi, ''Akhbar Makkah'', vol. 1, pp. 58-66</ref>

The [[Qur'an]] states that Abraham was commanded to sacrifice his son. The son is not named in the Qur'an (see {{cite quran|37|99|end=113|style=ref}}) and in early [[Islam]], there was a controversy over the son's identity. However the belief later prevailed that the son was Ishmael, and this view is endorsed by [[Muslim]] scholars.<ref name="EoI_Ishaq"/> The argument of those scholars who believed in the Ishmael theory was that "the promise to Sarah of Isaac followed by [[Jacob]] ({{cite quran|11|71|end=74|style=ref}}) excluded the possibility of a [[Binding of Isaac|sacrifice of Isaac]]."<ref name="EoI_Ishaq"/> The other party held that the son of sacrifice was Isaac since "God's perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac (in {{cite quran|12|6|style=ref}}) referred to his making Abraham his friend and saving him from the burning bush and to his rescuing Isaac."<ref name="EoI_Ishaq"/>

According to [[Bruce Metzger]] and Michael Coogan, professors of [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]], the circumcision of Muslims has its roots in the tradition that Ishmael was circumcised.<ref> Bruce M Metzger and Michael D Coogan (1993), pp. 329 (Under 'Ishmael'). </ref>

== Bahá'í Faith ==
The Bahá'í writings state that it was Ishmael, and not Isaac, who was the son of Abraham almost sacrificed.<ref>{{cite book |author = Bahá'u'lláh |authorlink = Bahá'u'lláh |year = 1976 |title = Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id = ISBN 0877431876 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GWB/gwb-32.html#gr1 | pages = pp. 75-76}}</ref> However, the Bahá'í writings also state that the name is unimportant as either could be used: the importance is that both were symbols of sacrifice.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Interpretation in the Bahá'í Faith | first = Juan R.I. | last = Cole | journal = Baha'i Studies Review | volume= 5 | number = 1 | year = 1995 | url = http://bahai-library.org/articles/cole.interpretation.html}}</ref> The [[Bahá'í]] writings also consider Ishmael an ancestor of Muhammad and the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origdate = 1904-06 |year = 1981 |title = Some Answered Questions |publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location = Wilmette, Illinois, USA |pages = p. 13 |id = ISBN 0877431906 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-4.html#pg13 }}</ref> According to [[Shoghi Effendi]], there has also been another Ishmael, this one a prophet of [[Israel]] <ref>"Concerning the appearance of two Davids; there is a Tablet from 'Abdu'l-Bahá in which He says that just as there have been two Ishmaels, one the son of Abraham, and the other one of the Prophets of Israel, there have appeared two Davids, one the author of the Psalms and father of Solomon, and the other before Moses."
(Shoghi Effendi, Dawn of a New Day, pp. 86-87)</ref>

==Notes==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
<references/>
</div>

==References==
;Books and journals
*{{cite book | last=Bruce | first=M Metzger | coauthors=Michael D Coogan | title=The Oxford Companion To The Bible | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993| id=ISBN 978-0195046458}}
*{{cite journal | last=Nikaido| first=S.| title=Hagar and Ishmael as Literary Figures: An Intertextual Study | journal=Vetus Testamentum | volume=51 | Fasc=2 | date=2001}}
*{{cite book | last=Werblowsky| first=R.J. Zwi | coauthors=Geoffrey Wigoder | title=The Oxford Dictionary of Jewish Religion | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1997| id=ISBN 0-19-508605-8}}

;Encyclopedias
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider | encyclopedia= Brill's New Pauly- Antiquity | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=2005| id=ISBN 978 9004122703}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2005| edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion| publisher=MacMillan Reference Books| year=2005| edition=2nd| id=ISBN 978-0028657332}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia Britannica | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-9004123564}}



==See also==
*[[Isaac]]
*[[Abraham]]
*[[List of names referring to El]]
{{Prophets in the Qur'an|no}}

==External links==
*[http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/adam_gen/intro.html Genealogy from Adam to the Twelve Tribes]
*[http://www.islam101.com/history/people/prophets/Ismael.htm Ishmael in Islam]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=277&letter=I&search=Ishmael ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'': Ishmael].
*[http://www.anchorite.org/blog/2006/07/31/biographical-study-on-ishmael/ Biographical Study on Ishmael]
*{{CathEncy|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Ismael|title=Ismael}}
*[http://bahai9.com/Ishmael Ishmael in Bahai Faith]

{{Sons of Ishmael}}
{{Sons of Ishmael2}}

[[Category:Arab]]
[[Category:Biblical polygamists]]
[[Category:Major Torah figures]]

[[ar:إسماعيل]]
[[ca:Ismael]]
[[cs:Izmael]]
[[da:Ismael]]
[[de:Ismael]]
[[es:Ismael]]
[[eo:Iŝmael]]
[[fa:اسماعیل]]
[[fr:Ismaël]]
[[id:Nabi Ismail]]
[[id:Nabi Ismail]]
[[it:Ismaele]]
[[it:Ismaele]]
[[he:ישמעאל]]
[[he:ישמעאל]]
[[nl:Ismaël]]
[[nl:Ismaël]]
[[ja:イシュマエル]]
[[no:Ismail]]
[[pl:Izmael (syn Abrahama)]]
[[pt:Ismael]]
[[ro:Ismael]]
[[ru:Измаил (в Библии)]]
[[simple:Ishmael]]
[[fi:Ismael]]
[[sv:Ismael]]
[[tr:İsmail]]
[[uk:Ізмаїл (міфологія)]]
[[ur:اسماعیل علیہ السلام]]
[[zh:伊希梅尔]]

Revision as of 02:35, 10 December 2007

For other uses, see Ishmael (disambiguation).
Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness, by Karel Dujardin

Ishmael (Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Standard Yišmaʿel Tiberian Yišmāʿêl; Arabic: إسماعيل, Ismā'īl) was Abraham's eldest son, born by his wife's handmaiden Hagar. Though born of Hagar, according to Mesopotamian law, Ishmael was credited as Sarah's son (Gn. 16:2)[1] According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137 (Gn. 25:17).[2]

Both Jewish and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael as the ancestor of Arab people. [1]

Judaism has generally viewed Ishmael as the son of Abraham.[1] Jews and Christians (the House of Israel) maintain that Isaac, Abraham's son by Sarah the free woman and the father of all Israel, rather than Ishmael was the true heir. This is supported in Genesis chapter 21 "in Isaac shall the seed be called".[3] The New Testament contains a reference to Ishmael where Paul defines the difference in Isaac and Ishmael in Galatians chapter 4. Biblically, Ishmael is used to symbolize the bondwoman - not free - Isaac symbolizes those that have freedom to choose, asserting such freedom is found in Christianity.[1] Islamic tradition, however, has a very positive view of Ishmael, giving him a larger and more significant role. The Qur'an views Isaac and Ishmael as prophets. According to the interpretation of certain early Islamic theologians, whose view prevailed later, Ishmael was the actual son that Abraham was called on to sacrifice, as opposed to Isaac. In the Bible story God tested Abraham through the sacrifice of Isaac. The story reflects the same story as given in Genesis where there is an evil older brother and the chosen younger brother. This is evidenced again in Esau and Jacob, where Esau sells his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of lentil soup.[1][4]

Etymology and meaning

Cognates of Hebrew Yishm'e'l existed in various ancient Semitic cultures.[1] For example, it is known that the name was used in early Babylonian and in Minæan.[2] It is translated literally as "God has heard", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise."[1] Hebrew Šimʿon and Samuel are from the same root.

Hebrew Bible

See also: Account of Isaac in the Hebrew Bible

The dismissal of Hagar, by Pieter Pietersz Lastman
Expulsion of Ishmael and His Mother, from Gustave Doré's illustrated Bible of 1866.

Chapters 16-25 of the book of Genesis contain the stories of Ishmael.[2] Historians and academics in the fields of linguistics and source criticism believe that the stories of Ishmael belong to the three strata of J, or Yahwist source, the P, or Priestly source, and the E, or Elohist source (See Documentary hypothesis). [2]For example, The narration in 16 Genesis 16 is of J type and the narration in 21:8-21 Genesis 21:8–21 is of E type. [5]

The account of the life of Ishmael according to the Hebrew Bible

According to the Bible, Sarah (Abraham's wife) was childless, yet desired a son. She offers her maidservant Hagar to Abraham as a surrogate. Customs of the time dictated that, although Hagar was the birth mother, any child conceived would belong to Sarah and Abraham. [6] [7]

Hagar became pregnant and proud of herself, which resulted in harsh treatment by Sarah. Hagar fled and ran into the wilderness, where an angel appeared to her by a spring of water. [6] The angel of the Lord told her to return, adding that God would increase her descendants through a son whose name would be Ishmael. The angel told Hagar that Ishmael would become "a wild donkey of a man" (the "wild donkey" in Hebrew being a zebra) and would be in constant struggle with others.[6]

So Hagar returned to Abraham's house, and had a son whom she named Ishmael.[6] Abraham was 86 years old when Ishmael was born.[8] Abraham, obeying God's commandment, circumcised Ishmael when he was thirteen. [9] The next year, Abraham's wife Sarah became pregnant with his second son, Isaac.[6] One day Sarah was angered by seeing Ishmael mocking or playing with Isaac (the Hebrew word is ambiguous[10]),[2] and she asked Abraham to expel him and his mother, saying: "Get rid of that slave woman and her son, for that slave woman's son will never share in the inheritance with my son Isaac."[6] [11] Ishmael was very dear to Abraham and he initially refused to do as Sarah asked.[2] He finally gave in to his wife's request when God told him that He would take care of Ishmael, since he was a descendant of Abraham.[9][12] Abraham provided Hagar and her child with bread and a bottle of water and sent her into the desert.[9][13] Hagar, with her son, wandered in the wilderness and ran out of water. When they were reduced to great distress, an angel appeared and showed Hagar a spring of water saying "What is the matter, Hagar? Do not be afraid; God has heard the boy crying as he lies there. Lift the boy up and take him by the hand, for I will make him into a great nation."[9][14]

They lived in the wilderness of Paran, where Hagar's son became an expert in archery. His mother married him to an Egyptian woman.[9] According to the Bible, Ishmael had 12 sons who became twelve tribal chiefs. The twelve sons of Ishmael, were named Nebaioth, Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah (See 25 Genesis 25) [2] Ishmael's sons settled everywhere from Havilah to Shur, i.e. from Assyria to the border of Egypt.[9] Ishmael also had a daughter named Mahalath who married Esau.[15]. Ishmael also appears with Isaac at the burial of Abraham.[9][16] Ishmael died at the age of 137. [2]

Jewish traditions

see also Hagar in Jewish mysticism, Isaac in Jewish traditions

Judaism has generally viewed Ishmael as wicked though repentant.[1] According to the Haggadah Ishmael was as an idolater and a "brother-hater, who becomes ill from Sarah's evil eye."[17] Ishmael later repents and comes to revere his brother Isaac.[17]

In some Rabbinic traditions Ishmael is said to have had two wives named Aisha and Fatima. Those names correspond to the Muslim tradition for the names of Muhammad's wife and daughter.[1] This is understood as a metaphoric representation of the Muslim world (first Arabs and then Turks) with Ishmael. [18]

The Israelites regarded the supposedly freedom-loving and bellicose descendants of Ishmael as inferior because Abraham had expelled Ishmael and his mother.[17][1]

In the Hebrew Bible, in Gen. 37:25-28, Joseph is sold to traders who are identified first as Ishmaelites, and then as Midianites, which lends support to the idea that the Ishmaelites either became the Midianites or were absorbed by them.

New Testament

see also Hagar in the New Testament, Isaac in New Testament

According to the Genesis account, Ishmael and his mother were expelled at the instigation of Sarah, in order to make sure that Isaac would be Abraham's heir. In the book of Galatians, Paul uses the incident "to symbolize the relationship between Judaism, the older but now rejected tradition, and Christianity." (Gal 4:21-31)[1] In Galatians 4:28-31,[19] Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant, while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace (into which her son Isaac enters).[20]

Islam

Main article: Islamic view of Ishmael
see also: Hagar in Islamic traditions

Ishmael (Arabic: Ismā'īl) is a prophet in Islam. The Qur'an considers him to be a son of Abraham.[21] His name appears twelve times in the Qur'an mostly in a list[22] with other prophets "as part of a litany of remembrances in which the pre-Muhammad prophets are praised for their resolute steadfastness and obedience to God, often in the face of adversity."[23]

Both Jewish and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael as the ancestor of Arab people. According to the Muslim tradition, Muhammad was a descendant of Ishmael through his son Kedar.[9]

Islamic traditions hold that the Ka'aba was rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael.

Abraham and Ishmael are said to have built the foundations of the Ka'aba ("They were raising the foundations of the House", Quran 2:127).[23] Islamic traditions hold that the Ka'aba was first built by the first man, Adam. Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations. [24]

The Qur'an states that Abraham was commanded to sacrifice his son. The son is not named in the Qur'an (see Quran 37:99–113) and in early Islam, there was a controversy over the son's identity. However the belief later prevailed that the son was Ishmael, and this view is endorsed by Muslim scholars.[25] The argument of those scholars who believed in the Ishmael theory was that "the promise to Sarah of Isaac followed by Jacob (Quran 11:71–74) excluded the possibility of a sacrifice of Isaac."[25] The other party held that the son of sacrifice was Isaac since "God's perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac (in Quran 12:6) referred to his making Abraham his friend and saving him from the burning bush and to his rescuing Isaac."[25]

According to Bruce Metzger and Michael Coogan, professors of Religious Studies, the circumcision of Muslims has its roots in the tradition that Ishmael was circumcised.[26]

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í writings state that it was Ishmael, and not Isaac, who was the son of Abraham almost sacrificed.[27] However, the Bahá'í writings also state that the name is unimportant as either could be used: the importance is that both were symbols of sacrifice.[28] The Bahá'í writings also consider Ishmael an ancestor of Muhammad and the Arabs.[29] According to Shoghi Effendi, there has also been another Ishmael, this one a prophet of Israel [30]

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fredrick E. Greenspahn, Encyclopedia of Religion, Ishmael, p.4551-4552
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica and KJ Bible was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ William Montgomery Watt, Encyclopedia of Islam, Ishaq
  5. ^ S. Nikaido(2001), p.1
  6. ^ a b c d e f "Hagar." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  7. ^ Gn 16:2
  8. ^ Personalities biography of Abraham at Who2, LLC
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Jewish Encyclopedia, Ishmael
  10. ^ Hagar, Jewish Encyclopedia
  11. ^ Genesis 21:8-10
  12. ^ Genesis 21:11-13
  13. ^ Columbia Encyclopedia, Ishmael
  14. ^ Genesis 21:17-21
  15. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, Mahalath
  16. ^ 25:9 Genesis 25:9
  17. ^ a b c Yvonne Domhardt,"Ishmael, Ishmaelites", Brill's New Pauly
  18. ^ Shalom Paul in The Oxford Dictionary of Jewish Religion, p.358
  19. ^ 4:28-31 Galatians 4:28–31
  20. ^ Encyclopedia of Christianity(Ed. John Bowden), Isaac
  21. ^ Certain Western scholars have suggested that Muhammad was not aware of this connection in the early period of his preaching. Their argument is that in the early verses of the Qur'an, Ishmael appears in lists mentioning prophets like Jonah, Lot and Idris without any association with Abraham. (e.g. see Quran 6:86,Quran 21:85, Quran 38:48). Reuven Firestone in Encyclopedia of the Qur'an says that there is some evidence to the contrary of claim of those western scholars.
  22. ^ The Qur'an generally lists Ishmael in the formula: “Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes” (e.g. see Quran 2:136, Quran 3:84), sometimes as "Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac". In verse Quran 2:133 Ishmael is mentioned as “Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac” and in some other lists Ishmael's name is absent from the list :"Abraham, Isaac and Jacob" such as Quran 6:84;Quran 12:38 cf Ishmael, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  23. ^ a b Ishmael, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
  24. ^ Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, vol. 1, pp. 58-66
  25. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference EoI_Ishaq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  26. ^ Bruce M Metzger and Michael D Coogan (1993), pp. 329 (Under 'Ishmael').
  27. ^ Bahá'u'lláh (1976). Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. pp. 75-76. ISBN 0877431876. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  28. ^ Cole, Juan R.I. (1995). "Interpretation in the Bahá'í Faith". Baha'i Studies Review. 5 (1).
  29. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1981). Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. p. 13. ISBN 0877431906. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |origdate= ignored (|orig-date= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ "Concerning the appearance of two Davids; there is a Tablet from 'Abdu'l-Bahá in which He says that just as there have been two Ishmaels, one the son of Abraham, and the other one of the Prophets of Israel, there have appeared two Davids, one the author of the Psalms and father of Solomon, and the other before Moses." (Shoghi Effendi, Dawn of a New Day, pp. 86-87)

References

Books and journals
  • Bruce, M Metzger (1993). The Oxford Companion To The Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195046458. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Nikaido, S. (2001). "Hagar and Ishmael as Literary Figures: An Intertextual Study". Vetus Testamentum. 51. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |Fasc= ignored (help)
  • Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508605-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Encyclopedias
  • Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, ed. (2005). Brill's New Pauly- Antiquity. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978 9004122703. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1593392369. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004123564. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)


See also


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