Editing Pennines

{{Short description|Range of uplands in Northern England}}
{{Distinguish|Apennine Mountains|Pennine Alps|Pieniny}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox mountain
| fetchwikidata = NONE
| name = Pennines
| other_name = 
| country = England, [[United Kingdom]]
| geology = 
| age = 
| highest = [[Cross Fell]]
| elevation = 893 m (2,930 ft)
| coordinates = {{coord|54|42|10|N|2|29|14|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| photo = Topo_Map_Pennines.png
| photo_caption = Northern England and adjoining areas, showing the general extent of the Pennines
| location = [[Northumberland]], [[Cumbria]], [[County Durham]], [[North Yorkshire]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[South Yorkshire]], [[Lancashire]], [[Greater Manchester]], [[Cheshire]], [[Derbyshire]], [[Staffordshire]]
| district_type = 
| district = 
| subdivision1_type = 
| subdivision1 = 
}}
The '''Pennines''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɛ|n|aɪ|n|z}}), also known as the '''Pennine Chain''' or '''Pennine Hills''',<ref>{{cite web |title=What are the landforms of England? |publisher=Project Britain |url=http://resources.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/landforms.htm |access-date=25 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801160551/http://resources.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/landforms.htm |archive-date=1 August 2016}}</ref> are a range of [[highland|uplands]] mainly located in [[Northern England]]. Commonly described as the "[[Vertebral column|backbone]] of England" because of its length and position, the range runs from [[Derbyshire]] and [[Staffordshire]] in the [[North Midlands|north of the Midlands]] to [[Northumberland]] in [[North East England]]. From the [[River Tyne|Tyne Gap]] in the north, the range extends south through the [[North Pennines]], [[Yorkshire Dales]], [[South Pennines]], and [[Peak District]] to end near the valley of the [[River Trent]].<ref>{{cite book|first=W. A. |last=Poucher |year=1946|title=The Backbone of England. A photographic and descriptive guide to the Pennine range from Derbyshire to Durham |place=Guildford and Esher |publisher=Billing and Sons Limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=W. |last2=Trotter |first2=F. M. |publication-date=1954 |title=The Pennines and Adjacent Areas |edition=3rd |series=Handbooks on the Geology of Great Britain |location=London |publisher=HMSO |page=1 |isbn=0-11-880720-X |year=1975}}</ref> The [[Border Moors & Forests|Border Moors]] and [[Cheviot Hills]], which lie beyond the Tyne Gap, are included in some definitions of the range.

The range is divided into two by the [[Aire Gap]], a wide pass formed by the valleys of the rivers [[River Aire|Aire]] and [[River Ribble|Ribble]]. There are several [[Spur (topography)|spurs]] off the main Pennine range east into [[Greater Manchester]] and [[Lancashire]], comprising the [[Rossendale Valley|Rossendale Fells]], [[West Pennine Moors]], and [[Forest of Bowland|Bowland Fells]].<ref name="Britain's Structure and Scenery">{{cite journal |last=Dudley Stamp |first=L. |publication-date=1946 |title=Britain's Structure and Scenery |edition=1960 |series=The Fontana [[New Naturalist]] Series |location=London and Glasgow |journal=Nature |volume=158 |issue=4023 |page=809 |publisher=Collins |year=1946 |doi=10.1038/158809a0 |bibcode=1946Natur.158..809T |s2cid=4074834 |author-link=Laurence Dudley Stamp}}</ref><ref name="Great Britain">{{cite book |title=Great Britain |date=2 January 2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FJkAgAAQBAJ&q=bowland+pennines&pg=PA270 |pages=270–271 |publisher=Alan G. Ogilvie |isbn=9781107626539 |access-date=31 October 2017}}</ref> The [[Howgill Fells]] and [[Orton Fells]] in [[Cumbria]] are also sometimes considered to be Pennine spurs.<ref name="marsh">{{cite book|title=Great Mountain Days in the Pennines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiLen-r2t5QC&q=howgill+fells+pennines&pg=PT92 |publisher=Cicerone |date=2013 |first=Terry |last=Marsh |isbn=978-1852846503 |access-date=31 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="A Nature Conservation Review">{{cite book |title=A Nature Conservation Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPQaFxH-AZYC&q=orton+fells+pennines&pg=PA317 |first=Derek |last=Ratcliffe |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521203296 |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> The Pennines are an important water catchment area, with numerous [[reservoir]]s in the head streams of the river valleys.

Most of the range is protected by [[National parks of the United Kingdom|national parks]] and [[National Landscape|national landscapes]] (formerly [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty|Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]). Running north to south, and including the Cheviots, the range is within [[Northumberland National Park]], the North Pennines National Landscape, the [[Yorkshire Dales National Park]], [[Nidderdale National Landscape]], the [[Forest of Bowland]] National Landscape, and the [[Peak District|Peak District National Park]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty|publisher=Natural England |url=http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/designations/aonb/default.aspx| access-date=23 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=National Parks|publisher=Natural England |url=http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/designations/nationalparks/default.aspx| access-date=2 December 2007}}</ref> The only significant unprotected gap is the area between [[Skipton]] and [[Marsden, West Yorkshire|Marsden]].

Britain's oldest [[Long-distance trail|long-distance footpath]], the 268-mile (429&nbsp;km)<!--distance per cited reference; {{convert}} gives different conversion in either direction--> [[Pennine Way]], runs along most of the Pennines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/PennineWay/text.asp?PageId=34|title=Trail stats, Pennine Way|access-date=3 August 2007 |work=National Trails Homepage|publisher=[[The Countryside Agency]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813094058/http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/PennineWay/text.asp?PageId=34|archive-date=13 August 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{anchor|Etymology|Toponymy}}

==Name==
Various etymologies have proposed treating "Pennine" as a native [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]]/Modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name related to ''[[wikt:pen#Welsh|pen-]]'' ("head").{{refn|[[Margaret Gelling|Gelling]], cited by Redmonds<ref name="Redmonds"/>}} It did not become a common name until the 18th century and almost certainly derives from modern comparisons with the [[Apennine Mountains]], which run down the middle of [[Italy]] in a similar fashion.<ref name="Redmonds">{{Citation|last=Redmonds |first=George|contribution=A Major Place-Name Ignored|title=Names and History: People, Places, and Things |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |publication-date=2004 |pages=65–68 |isbn=978-1-85285-426-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxk8qK2uF7kC&pg=PA65 |date=15 March 2007}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=March 2022}}

Following an 1853 article by Arthur Hussey,<ref>{{Citation|last=Hussey|first=Arthur|editor-last=Cave|editor-first=Edward|editor-link=Edward Cave |contribution=A Renewed Examination of 'Richard of Cirencester' |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DboUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA272 |title=The Gentleman's Magazine |volume=XXXIX |location=London |publisher=[[John Bowyer Nichols|J.B. Nichols]] &&nbsp;Son |date=1853 |pages=270–273 }}</ref> it has become a common belief that the name derives from a passage in ''[[The Description of Britain]]'' ({{langx|la|De Situ Britanniæ}}),{{refn|Route VII: "...&nbsp;This province is divided into two equal parts by a chain of mountains called the Pennine Alps, which rising on the confines of the [[Iceni]] and Carnabii, near the River Trivona &#91;[[River Trent|Trent]]&#93;, extend towards the north in a continued series of fifty [[Roman mile|miles]]&nbsp;..."<ref name=bertie>{{Citation| last=Bertram | first=Charles | author-link=Charles Bertram | others= Anonymously translated & annotated by Henry Hatcher | year=1809 | orig-year=First published in 1757 |contribution=Chapter XXXIII |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA51 | title=The Description of Britain, Translated from Richard of Cirencester | publisher=J.&nbsp;White &&nbsp;Co. | location=London | page=51}}</ref>}} an infamous [[literary forgery|historical forgery]] concocted by [[Charles Bertram]] in the 1740s and accepted as genuine until the 1840s. In 2004, George Redmonds reassessed this, finding that numerous respected writers passed over the origin of the mountains' name in silence even in works dedicated to the topological etymology of [[Derbyshire]] and [[Lancashire]].<ref name="Redmonds"/> He found that the derivation from Bertram was widely believed and considered uncomfortable.<ref name="Redmonds"/> In fact, Redmonds found repeated comparisons with the Italian Apennines going back at least as early as [[William Camden|William Camden (1551–1623)]],{{refn|[[Skipton]], [[William Camden|Camden]] said, was "hidden and enclosed among steep Hilles to Latium in Italie, which Varro supposeth to have been called because it lyeth close under the Apennine and the Alps". He went on to describe how "the North part ... riseth up and swelleth somewhat mountainous, with moores and hilles, but of no bignesse, which beginning here runs like as Apennine doth in Italie, through the middest of England ... even as far as Scotland, although oftentimes they change their name."}} many of whose placenames and ideas Bertram incorporated into his work. Bertram was responsible (at most) with popularizing the name against other contenders such as [[Daniel Defoe]]'s "English Andes".<ref name="Redmonds"/> His own form of the name was the "Pennine Alps" (''{{lang|la|Alpes Peninos}}''), which today is used for [[Pennine Alps|a western section]] of the continental [[Alps]]. Those mountains (the area around the [[Great St Bernard Pass|St. Bernard Pass]]) derive their name from the Latin ''[[Alpes Pœninæ]]'' whose name has been variously derived from the [[Hannibal's crossing of the Alps|Carthaginians]],<ref>[[Livy]], ''History of Rome'', Book&nbsp;V, §35.</ref> a local god,<ref>[[Livy]], ''History of Rome'', Book&nbsp;XXXI, §38.</ref> and [[Common Celtic|Celtic]] ''peninus''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-Names|editor-first=Alexander|editor-last=Falileyev |publisher=Aberystwyth University|year=2007|title=Summus P(o)eninus |url=http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2160/282/5/ContCelticPNDictionary.pdf|access-date=2 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731025816/http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2160/282/5/ContCelticPNDictionary.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> The St. Bernard Pass was the pass used in the [[Campaign history of the Roman military#Celtic invasion of Italia .28390.E2.80.93387 BC.29|invasions of Italy]] by the [[Gauls|Gallic]] [[Boii]] and [[Lingones]] in 390&nbsp;BC. The etymology of the [[Apennines]] themselves—whose name first referred to their northern extremity and then later spread southward—is also disputed but is usually taken to derive from some form of [[Common Celtic|Celtic]] ''pen'' or ''ben'' ("mountain, head").<ref name=lewis>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=A Latin Dictionary |first1=Charlton T. |last1=Lewis |first2=Charles |last2=Short |location=Oxford; Medford |publisher=Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library |title=Apenninus |year=1879 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DApenninus |access-date=23 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Italy; a popular account of the country, its people, and its institutions (including Malta and Sardinia) |url=https://archive.org/details/italypopularacco00deec |first1=W. |last1=Deecke|translator-first=H.&nbsp;A. |translator-last=Nesbitt |location=London; New York |publisher=Macmillan Co.; S. Sonnenschein & Co. |year=1904 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=R. |last=Matasović |date=2009 |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17336-1}}</ref>

Various towns and geographical features within the Pennines have names of [[Britons (Celtic people)|Celtic]] origin, including [[Pennington, Cumbria|Pennington]], [[Penrith, Cumbria|Penrith]], [[Pen-y-ghent]], [[Pendle Hill]], the [[River Eden, Cumbria|River Eden]], and [[Cumbria]]. More commonly, local names result from [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] and [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlements. In Yorkshire, [[Teesdale]], and Cumbria, many words of [[Norse language|Norse]] origin, not commonly used in standard English, are part of everyday speech: for example, ''[[Gill (ravine)|gill/ghyll]]'' (narrow steep valley), ''[[Beck (stream)|beck]]'' (brook or stream), ''[[fell]]'' (hill), and ''[[Dale (landform)|dale]]'' (valley).<ref>{{Cite book | last =Gunn | first =Peter | year =1984 | title =The Yorkshire Dales. Landscape with Figures | location =London | publisher =Century Publishing Co Ltd | isbn =0-7126-0370-0 }}</ref> Northumbrian/borders terms are used in South Tynedale, [[Weardale]], and [[Allendale, Northumberland|Allendale]], such as ''[[Burn (landform)|burn]]'' (stream), ''cleugh'' (ravine), ''hope'' (valley), ''law'' (hill) and ''linn'' (waterfall).

==Geography==
[[File:Rombalds moor trig.jpg|thumb|[[Rombalds Moor]], [[South Pennines]]]]

The northern Pennine range is bordered by the [[foothill]]s of the [[Lake District]], and uplands of the Howgill Fells, Orton Fells, Border Moors and Cheviot Hills. The West Pennine Moors, Rossendale Valley<ref name="Britain's Structure and Scenery"/> and Forest of Bowland<ref name="Great Britain"/> are western spurs, the former two are in the South Pennines. The Howgill Fells<ref name="marsh"/> and Orton Fells<ref name="A Nature Conservation Review"/> are sometimes considered to be part of the Pennines, both inside the Yorkshire Dales National Park.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yorkshire Dales expand into Lancashire in national parks land grab |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/01/yorkshire-dales-expand-lancashire-national-parks-extension-leck-fell |first=Helen |last=Pidd |newspaper=The Guardian |date=August 2016 |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> The Pennines are fringed by extensive [[Upland and lowland|lowlands]] including the [[River Eden, Cumbria|Eden Valley]], [[West Lancashire Coastal Plain]], [[Cheshire Plain]], [[Vale of York]], [[Humberhead Levels]] and the [[Midlands|Midland Plains]].

[[File:Clougha heather.jpg|thumb|Scenery in the [[Forest of Bowland]]]]

The main range of the Pennines start from its southern end at the [[Weaver Hills]] in the Peak District.<ref name="English Villages">{{cite book |last1=Banks |first1=Francis Richard |title=English Villages |isbn=9787240005989 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2pnAAAAMAAJ&q=weaver+hills+southern+end+pennines|year=1963|access-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> The southern foothills of the range merge into the valley and [[Drainage basin|basin]] of the [[River Trent]],<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica |id=450075 |title=Pennines |access-date=28 February 2008}}</ref> separating the range from the Midland Plains to the south. The Pennines continue northwards across the Peak District and adjoin the South Pennines approximately around the [[River Tame, Greater Manchester|Tame Valley]], [[Standedge]] and [[Holme Valley]]. The South Pennines are separated from the Forest of Bowland by the [[River Ribble|Ribble Valley]], and include the Rossendale Valley and West Pennine Moors in the west.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/511867 |publisher=Natural England |title=NCA Profile: 36 Southern Pennines (NE323) |access-date=8 May 2022}}</ref> The range continues further north into the [[Aire Gap]] which separates the Yorkshire Dales from the South Pennines to the south and the Forest of Bowland to the southwest.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Aire Gap |url=http://www.yorkshire-dales.com/aire-gap.html |website=The Yorkshire Dales Website |accessdate=8 May 2022}}</ref> The main range then continues northwards across the Yorkshire Dales to the [[Stainmore|Stainmore Gap]] where it adjoins the North Pennines. The range continues into its northern end at the [[River Tyne|Tyne Gap]],<ref name="NCA Profile: 10. North Pennines (NE428)">{{cite web |title=NCA Profile: 10. North Pennines (NE428) |url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/5682293 |website=Natural England |access-date=5 July 2022}}</ref> separating it from the Border Moors and Cheviot Hills across the [[Anglo-Scottish border]].

Although the Pennines cover the area between the Peak District and the Tyne Gap, the Pennine Way affects perceptions of the southern and northern extents of the defined area. The southern end of the Pennines is said to be in the [[High Peak, Derbyshire|High Peak]] of [[Derbyshire]] at [[Edale]], the start of the Pennine Way but the range continues south across the Peak District to the Weaver Hills,<ref name="English Villages"/> while its foothills merge with the Trent Valley.<ref name="Britannica"/> This encompasses eastern [[Cheshire]], northern and eastern [[Staffordshire]], and southern Derbyshire.<ref name="marsh" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Geography: Or, First Division of "The English Encyclopædia", Volume 3|year=1867 |publisher=Charles Knight |pages=69–70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwhQAAAAMAAJ&q=uttoxeter+pennines+southern+end&pg=PA69 |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=City Centre Conservation Area |url=https://www.derby.gov.uk/media/derbycitycouncil/contentassets/documents/conservationareas/DerbyCityCouncil-conservation-area-city-centre.pdf |website=Derby City Council |access-date=19 August 2018}}</ref> Conversely, the Border Moors and Cheviot Hills, separated by the Tyne Gap and [[Whin Sill]], along which run the [[A69 road|A69]] and [[Hadrian's Wall]], are not part of the Pennines but, perhaps because the Pennine Way crosses them, they are treated as such.

[[File:Stanage Edge.jpg|thumb|[[Stanage Edge]] in the [[Peak District]]]]

Most of the Pennine landscape is characterised by upland areas of high [[moorland]] indented by more fertile river valleys, although the landscape varies in different areas. The Peak District consists of hills, plateaus and valleys, divided into the [[Dark Peak]] with moorlands and gritstone edges, and the [[White Peak]] with limestone gorges.<ref>{{cite web|title = Landscape |url = http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/microsites/sopr/landscape |publisher = Peak District National Park|access-date = 22 July 2016 |archive-date = 14 September 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170914172129/http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/microsites/sopr/landscape|url-status = dead}}</ref> The South Pennines is an area of hills and moorlands with narrow valleys between the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales.<ref>{{cite web |title = About the South Pennines|url = http://www.pennineprospects.co.uk/south-pennines| access-date = 22 July 2016}}</ref> Bowland is dominated by a central upland landform of deeply incised gritstone [[fell]]s covered with tracts of heather-covered [[peat]] moorland, [[blanket bog]] and steep-sided wooded valleys linking the upland and lowland landscapes.<ref>{{cite web | title =The Landscape of The Forest of Bowland Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) | publisher = Lancashire County Council| date =6 June 2007 | url =http://www.forestofbowland.com/wild_landscape.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207065917/http://www.forestofbowland.com/wild_landscape.asp |archive-date=7 February 2009 | access-date = 7 December 2007 }}</ref> The landscape is higher and more mountainous in the Yorkshire Dales and North Pennines. The Yorkshire Dales are characterised by valleys, moorlands and fells<ref>{{cite web |title = Landscape|url = http://www.yorkshiredales.org.uk/about-the-dales/landscape| publisher = Yorkshire Dales National Park| access-date = 22 July 2016}}</ref> while the North Pennines consist of plateaus, moorlands, fells, edges and valleys, with most of the higher peaks in the west.<ref name="NCA Profile: 10. North Pennines (NE428)"/>

===Elevation===
[[File:Crossfell.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cross Fell]], the highest point of the Pennines]]

Rising less than {{convert|3000|ft|m|-2}}, the Pennines are [[fell]]s, with most of the mountainous terrain in the north. The highest point is [[Cross Fell]] in eastern Cumbria, at {{convert|2930|ft|m|0}} and other principal peaks in the North Pennines are [[Great Dun Fell]] {{convert|2782|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Mickle Fell]] {{convert|2585|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, and [[Burnhope Seat]] {{convert|2451|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}. Principal peaks in the Yorkshire Dales include [[Whernside]] {{convert|2415|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Ingleborough]] {{convert|2372|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[High Seat (Yorkshire Dales)|High Seat]] {{convert|2328|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Wild Boar Fell]] {{convert|2324|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} and [[Pen-y-ghent]] {{convert|2274|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}. Principal peaks in the Forest of Bowland include [[Ward's Stone]] {{convert|1841|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Fair Snape Fell]] {{convert|1710|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, and [[Hawthornthwaite Fell]] {{convert|1572|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}. Terrain is lower towards the south and the only peaks which exceed {{convert|2000|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} are [[Kinder Scout]] {{convert|2087|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} and [[Bleaklow]] {{convert|2077|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} in the Peak District. Other principal peaks in the South Pennines and Peak District include [[Black Hill (Peak District)|Black Hill]] {{convert|1909|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Shining Tor]] {{convert|1834|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Pendle Hill]] {{convert|1827|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Black Chew Head]] {{convert|1778|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, [[Rombalds Moor]] {{convert|1319|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} and [[Winter Hill (North West England)|Winter Hill]] {{convert|1496|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}.

===Drainage===
[[File:Across Ribblesdale from Moughton Nab - geograph.org.uk - 1502626.jpg|right|thumb|[[Ribblesdale]], [[Yorkshire Dales]]]]

For much of their length the Pennines are the main [[water divide|watershed]] in northern England, dividing east and west. The rivers [[River Eden, Cumbria|Eden]], [[River Ribble|Ribble]], [[River Dane|Dane]] and tributaries of the [[River Mersey|Mersey]] (including the [[River Irwell|Irwell]], [[River Tame, Greater Manchester|Tame]] and [[River Goyt|Goyt]]) flow westwards towards the [[Irish Sea]].

On the eastern side of the Pennines, the rivers [[River Tyne, England|Tyne]], [[River Wear|Wear]], and [[River Tees|Tees]] all drain directly to the [[North Sea]]. The [[River Swale|Swale]], [[River Ure|Ure]], [[River Nidd|Nidd]], [[River Wharfe|Wharfe]], [[River Aire|Aire]], [[River Calder, West Yorkshire|Calder]] and [[River Don, South Yorkshire|Don]] all flow into the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|Yorkshire Ouse]], and reach the sea through the [[Humber Estuary]].

The [[River Trent]] flows around the southern end of the Pennines and northwards on the eastern side taking water from tributaries, principally the [[River Dove, Central England|Dove]] and [[River Derwent, Derbyshire|Derwent]]. The Trent drains the east and west sides of the southern Pennines, also reaching the North Sea through the Humber Estuary. The Trent and Ouse meet and enter the Humber at [[Trent Falls]]. Maximum discharge through the Humber can reach 1,500 m<sup>3</sup>/s (53,000 cu ft/s).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iia.cnr.it/big_file/EUROCAT/publications/EUROCAT%20WD04.pdf |title=The Humber Catchment and its Coastal Area |publisher=University of East Anglia |year=2002 |first=Rachel |last=Cave |access-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105806/http://www.iia.cnr.it/big_file/EUROCAT/publications/EUROCAT%20WD04.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref>

===Climate===
[[File:Whernside and Ribblehead Viaduct.jpg|right|thumb|A snow-covered [[Whernside]], Yorkshire Dales]]

According to the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen classification]], the Pennines generally have a temperate [[oceanic climate]] (''Cfb'') like the rest of England, but the uplands have more precipitation, stronger winds and colder weather than the surrounding areas. Some of the higher elevations have a [[Oceanic climate#Subpolar variety (Cfc, Cwc)|subpolar oceanic climate]] (''Cfc''), which may border a [[tundra climate|tundra]] (''ET'') and [[subarctic climate]] (''Dfc'') in areas like [[Great Dun Fell]].<ref name="Great Dun Fell 2 Climatic Averages 1981–2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/great-dun-fell-2#?tab=climateTables|title=Great Dun Fell 2 Climatic Averages 1981–2010|publisher=Met Office|access-date=22 December 2012}}</ref>

More snow falls on the Pennines than on surrounding lowland areas due to the elevation and distance from the coast; unlike lowland areas of England, the Pennines can have quite severe winters.

The northwest is amongst the wettest regions of England and much of the rain falls on the Pennines. The eastern side is drier than the west—the [[rain shadow]] shields northeast England from rainfall that would otherwise fall there.

Precipitation is important for the area's biodiversity and human population. Many towns and cities are located along rivers flowing from the range and in northwest England the lack of natural aquifers is compensated for by reservoirs.

Water has carved out limestone landscapes in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and Peak District, with gorges and caves present in the Yorkshire Dales and Peak District. In some areas, precipitation has contributed to poor soils, resulting in part in [[moorland]] landscapes that characterize much of the range. In other areas where the soil has not been degraded, it has resulted in lush vegetation.

For the purpose of growing plants, the Pennines are in [[hardiness zone]]s 7 and 8, as defined by the [[USDA]]. Zone 8 is common throughout most of the UK, and zone 7 is the UK's coldest hardiness zone. The Pennines, [[Scottish Highlands]], [[Southern Uplands]] and [[Snowdonia]] are the only areas of the UK in zone 7.
{{Weather box
|location = [[Great Dun Fell]], North Pennines <br>[[Location identifier#WMO station identifiers|WMO ID]]: 03227; coordinates {{coord|54.68401|N|2.45132|W|type:landmark_region:GB|name=Great Dun Fell 2|format=dms}}; elevation: {{convert|847|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}; 1991–2020 normals
| collapsed    = 
| metric first = y
| single line  = y
| Jan high C = 1.6
| Feb high C = 1.6
| Mar high C = 2.8
| Apr high C = 5.4
| May high C = 8.6
| Jun high C = 11.0
| Jul high C = 12.5
| Aug high C = 12.3
| Sep high C = 10.1
| Oct high C = 6.8
| Nov high C = 4.0
| Dec high C = 2.1
| year high C = 6.6
| Jan mean C = -0.4
| Feb mean C = -0.5
| Mar mean C = 0.6
| Apr mean C = 2.7
| May mean C = 5.6
| Jun mean C = 8.2
| Jul mean C = 10.0
| Aug mean C = 9.8
| Sep mean C = 7.8
| Oct mean C = 4.8
| Nov mean C = 2.1
| Dec mean C = 0.0
| year mean C = 4.2
| Jan low C = -2.4
| Feb low C = -2.6
| Mar low C = -1.6
| Apr low C = 0.0
| May low C = 2.7
| Jun low C = 5.5
| Jul low C = 7.5
| Aug low C = 7.4
| Sep low C = 5.6
| Oct low C = 2.8
| Nov low C = 0.2
| Dec low C = -2.1
| year low C = 1.9
| source 1 = [[Met Office]]<ref name="Met Averages">{{cite web |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-climate-averages/gcwr04zvq |title= Great Dun Fell 2 1991–2020 averages |access-date=10 March 2023|publisher=Met Office}}</ref>
}}

==Geology==
[[File:Thor's cave.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Limestone scenery at [[Thor's Cave]], Peak District]]
The Pennines have been carved from a series of geological structures whose overall form is a broad [[anticline]] whose axis extends in a north–south direction. The North Pennines are coincident with the [[Alston Block]] and the Yorkshire Dales are coincident with the [[Askrigg Block]]. In the south the Peak District is essentially a flat-topped dome.

Each of the structures consists of [[Carboniferous]] [[limestone]] overlain with [[Millstone Grit]]. The limestone is exposed at the surface in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the Dales and the [[White Peak]], limestone exposure has caused the formation of large cave systems and watercourses. In the Dales the caves or potholes are known as "pots" in the [[Yorkshire dialect and accent|Yorkshire dialect]]. They include some of the largest caves in England at [[Gaping Gill]], more than {{convert|350|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} deep and [[Rowten Pot]], {{convert|365|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} deep. [[Titan (cave)|Titan]] in the Peak District, the deepest shaft known in Britain, is connected to [[Peak Cavern]] in [[Castleton, Derbyshire]], the largest cave entrance in the country. Erosion of the limestone has led to geological formations, such as the [[limestone pavement]]s at [[Malham Cove]].

Between the northern and southern areas of exposed limestone between [[Skipton]] and the [[Dark Peak]] is a belt of exposed gritstone. Here the shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied by [[moorland]] covered with [[bracken]], [[peat]], heather and coarse grasses;<ref name="DB">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/domesday/dblock/GB-400000-441000/page/4 page 4] and [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/domesday/dblock/GB-400000-441000/page/5 page 5], Marginal Upland Grazing Sutton Moor, Domesday Reloaded, BBC 1986</ref> the higher ground is uncultivable and barely fit for pasture.

==History==
[[File:Harkerside Moor.jpg|thumb|left|A prehistoric settlement on Harkerside Moor in [[Swaledale]]]]
The Pennines contained [[Bronze Age]] settlements, and evidence remains of [[Neolithic]] settlement including many [[stone circles]] and [[henges]], such as [[Long Meg and Her Daughters]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outofoblivion.org.uk/ |title=A landscape through time |publisher=Out of Oblivion |access-date=5 August 2011}}</ref>

The uplands were controlled by the tribal federation of the [[Brigantes]], made up of small tribes who inhabited the area and cooperated on defence and external affairs. They evolved an early form of kingdom. During [[Roman Britain|Roman times]], the Brigantes were dominated by the Romans who exploited the Pennines for their natural resources including the wild animals found there.

The Pennines were an obstacle for [[Anglo-Saxon]] expansion westwards, although it appears the Anglo-Saxons travelled through the valleys. During the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]] the Pennines were controlled by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is believed that the north Pennines were under the control of the kingdom of [[Rheged]].

During Norse times the Pennines were settled by [[History of Denmark|Viking Danes]] in the east and [[History of Norway|Norwegian Vikings]] in the west. The Vikings influenced place names, culture and genetics. When England was unified the Pennines were incorporated. The mix of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Viking heritage resembled much of the rest of [[northern England]] and its culture developed alongside its lowland neighbours in northwest and northeast England. The Pennines were not a distinct political [[polity]], but were divided between neighbouring counties in northeast and northwest England; a major part was in the [[West Riding of Yorkshire]].

==Demography==
The Pennine region is sparsely populated by English standards.  Larger population centres are in the foothills and lowlands fringing the southern Pennine range, such as [[Barnsley]], [[Chesterfield, Derbyshire|Chesterfield]], [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]], [[Huddersfield]], [[Macclesfield]], [[Oldham]], [[Bury, Greater Manchester|Bury]], [[Rochdale]], [[Middleton, Greater Manchester|Middleton]], and [[Stockport]] but most of the northern Pennine range is thinly populated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mypennines.co.uk/north-pennines/#sthash.0yKQHkOw.dpbs|title=North Pennines|work = My Pennines|access-date=15 April 2016}}</ref> The cities of [[Bradford]], [[Derby]], [[Leeds]], [[Manchester]], [[Sheffield]], [[Stoke-on-Trent]] and [[Wakefield]] are also in the surrounding foothills and lowlands. The Pennines contain the highest village in the United Kingdom, [[Flash, Staffordshire|Flash]], at {{convert|1519|ft|m|0}}, near the southern end of the range in [[Staffordshire]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=The UK's highest mountain? It's not what you think |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/articles/uk-highest-places/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/articles/uk-highest-places/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=The Telegraph |date=9 October 2017 |access-date=3 April 2024|last1=Smith |first1=Oliver }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Tunstead Quarry - geograph.org.uk - 865006.jpg|right|thumb|Tunsted Quarry, Peak District]]
The main economic activities in the Pennines include [[sheep farm]]ing, [[quarry]]ing, finance and [[tourism]]. In the [[Peak District]], tourism is the major local employment for park residents (24%), with manufacturing industries (19%) and [[Peak District#Quarrying|quarrying]] (12%) also being important while 12% are employed in agriculture.<ref name="Place_called_home">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/index/living-in.htm |title=A place called home |publisher=Peak District |year=2009 |access-date=5 November 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519001312/http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/index/living-in.htm |archive-date=19 May 2009 }}</ref> Limestone is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement, while other extracted materials include shale for cement and [[gritstone]] for building stone.<ref name="Mineral_factsheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.peakdistrict-nationalpark.info/studyArea/factsheets/11.html#4 |title=Peak District National Park: Study Area |publisher=Peak District National Park |year=2003 |access-date=5 November 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20050620074557/http://www.peakdistrict-nationalpark.info/studyArea/factsheets/11.html |archive-date=20 June 2005 }}</ref> The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited to produce bottled [[mineral water]] and there are approximately 2,700 farms in the National Park.<ref name="Waugh">{{cite book |title=Geography An Integrated Approach |last=Waugh |first=D. |year=2000 |edition=3rd |isbn=0-17-444706-X |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer|Nelson Thornes]]}}</ref> The [[South Pennines]] are predominantly industrial, with the main industries including textiles, quarrying and mining,<ref name="South Pennines">{{cite web|title=South Pennines|url=http://www.walkridesouthpennines.co.uk/about.php|website=Pennine Prospects|access-date=5 November 2017}}</ref> while other economic activities within the South Pennines include tourism and farming.<ref name="£1.2m fund available to South Pennines farm businesses">{{cite web|title=£1.2m fund available to South Pennines farm businesses|url=http://www.fwi.co.uk/business/1-2m-fund-available-to-south-pennines-farm-businessses.htm|website=Farmers Weekly|date=20 January 2017|access-date=5 November 2017}}</ref>

Although the [[Forest of Bowland]] is mostly rural, the main economic activities in the area include farming<ref>{{cite web|title=Farming|url=http://forestofbowland.com/Farming|website=Forest of Bowland|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> and tourism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Local Heritage, Global Context: Cultural Perspectives on Sense of Place|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrWoDQAAQBAJ&q=forest+of+bowland+economy+tourism&pg=PT61 |publisher=Routledge |date=2016 |first=Rosy |last=Szymanski|isbn = 9781351921640|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> In the [[Yorkshire Dales]], tourism accounts for £350 million of expenditure every year while employment is mostly dominated by farming, accommodation and food sectors. There are also significant challenges for managing tourism, farming and other developments within the [[Yorkshire Dales National Park|National Park]].<ref name="Yorkshire Dales – Economy">{{cite web|title=Economy|url=http://www.yorkshiredales.org.uk/looking-after/achievingourvision/economy|publisher=Yorkshire Dales National Park|access-date=5 November 2017}}</ref> The main economic activities in the [[North Pennines]] include tourism, farming, timber and small-scale quarrying, due to the rural landscape.<ref name="North Pennines – Economy and business">{{cite web|title=Economy and business |url=http://www.northpennines.org.uk/about-us/annual-reviews/annual-review-2013-14/economy-and-business/|website=North Pennines AONB|access-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107002426/http://www.northpennines.org.uk/about-us/annual-reviews/annual-review-2013-14/economy-and-business/|archive-date=7 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:Gaps through Pennine Mountains UK topographic map.gif|thumb|right|The Pennines are traversed by several passes, mostly aligned with major rivers]]
Gaps that allow west–east communication across the Pennines include the Tyne Gap between the Pennines and the Cheviots, through which the [[A69 road]] and [[Tyne Valley Line|Tyne Valley railway]] link [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. The [[A66 road]], its summit at {{convert|1450|ft}}, follows the course of a [[Roman Britain|Roman]] road from [[Scotch Corner]] to [[Penrith, Cumbria|Penrith]] through the [[Stainmore]] Gap between the [[River Eden, Cumbria|Eden Valley]] in Cumbria and [[Teesdale]] in County Durham. The [[Aire Gap]] links Lancashire and Yorkshire via the valleys of the [[River Aire|Aire]] and [[River Ribble|Ribble]]. Other high-level roads include [[Buttertubs Pass]], named from [[limestone]] [[pothole]]s near its {{convert|1729|ft|adj=on}} summit, between [[Hawes]] in [[Wensleydale]] and [[Swaledale]] and the [[A684 road]] from [[Sedbergh]] to Hawes via [[Garsdale Head]] which reaches {{convert|1100|ft}}.<ref name="TPCrossings">{{citation|title=Transpennine Crossings |url=http://www.sabre-roads.org.uk/wiki/index.php?title=Transpennine_Crossings  |publisher=Sabre roads |access-date=14 August 2013}}</ref>

Further south the [[A58 road]] traverses the [[Calder Valley]] between [[West Yorkshire]] and [[Greater Manchester]] reaching {{convert|1282|ft}} between Littleborough and [[Ripponden]], while the [[A646 road]] along the Calder Valley between [[Burnley]] and [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]] reaches {{convert|764|ft}} following valley floors. In the Peak District the [[A628 road|A628]] Woodhead road links the [[M67 motorway]] in Greater Manchester with the [[M1 motorway]] in [[South Yorkshire]] and [[Holme Moss]] is crossed by the [[A6024 road]], whose highest point is near [[Holme Moss transmitting station]] between [[Longdendale]] and [[Holmfirth]].<ref name="TPCrossings"/>

The Pennines are traversed by the [[M62 motorway]], the highest motorway in England at {{convert|1221|ft}} on [[Windy Hill (Pennines)|Windy Hill]] near Junction 23.<ref name="TPCrossings"/>

Three trans-Pennine canals built during the [[Industrial Revolution]] cross the range:
* The [[Huddersfield Narrow Canal]] connects [[Huddersfield]] in the east with [[Manchester]] in the west. When it reaches [[Marsden, West Yorkshire|Marsden]], it passes under the range through the [[Standedge Tunnels|Standedge Tunnel]] to [[Diggle, Greater Manchester|Diggle]]. Fortnightly during the summer season, one can pass through the tunnel on a public narrowboat.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/places-to-visit/standedge-tunnel-and-visitor-centre |title=Standedge Tunnel & Visitor Centre: Opening times and prices |publisher=Canal and River Trust |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907224517/http://canalrivertrust.org.uk/standedge-tunnel/visit-us/opening-times-and-prices |archive-date=7 September 2013 }}</ref>
* The [[Rochdale Canal]] crosses the Pennines via [[Rochdale]], connecting the market town of [[Sowerby Bridge]] with Manchester.
* The [[Leeds and Liverpool Canal]], the longest and most northerly, crosses the Pennines via [[Skipton]], Burnley, [[Chorley]] and [[Wigan]] connecting [[Leeds]] in the east with [[Liverpool]] in the west.

[[File:Class 76 locomotives 76033 and 76031 at Woodhead on 24th March 1981.jpeg|thumb|A [[British Rail]] train about to enter the western portal of [[Woodhead Tunnel|Woodhead 3]], shortly before closure in 1981]]

The first of three [[Woodhead Tunnel]]s was completed by the [[Sheffield, Ashton-Under-Lyne and Manchester Railway]] in 1845, engineered by [[Charles Vignoles]] and [[Joseph Locke]]. At the time of its completion in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at a length of 3&nbsp;miles 13&nbsp;yards (4,840&nbsp;m); it was the first of several trans-Pennine tunnels including the [[Standedge Tunnels|Standedge]] and [[Totley Tunnel|Totley]] tunnels, which are only slightly longer. The first two tunnels were replaced by Woodhead 3, which was longer at 3 miles 66 yards (4860m). It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route and completed in 1953. The tunnel was opened by the transport minister [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]] on 3 June 1954.<ref name=RB_W>{{cite web|url=http://railways-of-britain.com/Woodhead.html|title=The Woodhead Route|work=Railways of Britain|access-date=27 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302082848/http://railways-of-britain.com/Woodhead.html|archive-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> It was designed by Sir [[William Halcrow]] & Partners.  The line was closed in 1981.

The [[London and North Western Railway]] acquired the Huddersfield and Manchester Railway in 1847 and built a single-line tunnel parallel to the canal tunnel at Standedge with a length of 3 miles, 57 yards (4803 m). Today rail services along the [[Huddersfield Line|Huddersfield line]] between [[Huddersfield railway station|Huddersfield]] and [[Manchester Victoria railway station|Victoria]] and [[Manchester Piccadilly railway station|Piccadilly]] stations in [[Manchester]] are operated by [[TransPennine Express]] and [[Northern (train operating company)|Northern]]. Between 1869 and 1876 the [[Midland Railway]] built the [[Settle-Carlisle Line]] through remote, scenic regions of the Pennines from near [[Settle, North Yorkshire|Settle]] to [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] passing [[Appleby-in-Westmorland]] and other settlements, some a distance from their stations. The line has survived, despite difficult times<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url= http://www.settle-carlisle.co.uk/explore-the-line/history/ |publisher=settle-carlisle.co.uk|access-date=15 August 2013}}</ref>
and is operated by Northern Rail.<ref name="northern">{{cite web |url=https://settle-carlisle.co.uk/tickets-times-travel/timetables/ |title=Timetables – The Settle Carlisle Railway |date=1010 |publisher=The Settle–Carlisle Railway |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref>

The [[Trans Pennine Trail]], a long-distance route for cyclists, horse riders and walkers, runs west–east alongside rivers and canals, along disused railway tracks and through historic towns and cities from [[Southport]] to [[Hornsea]] ({{convert|207|mi|km|disp=x|/}}).<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.transpenninetrail.org.uk/template.asp?ID=0&parentID=481 |title=Welcome to the Trans Pennine Trail |publisher=transpenninetrail.org.uk |access-date=14 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019201343/http://www.transpenninetrail.org.uk/template.asp?ID=0&parentID=481 |archive-date=19 October 2013 }}</ref> It crosses the north–south [[Pennine Way]] ({{convert|268|mi|km|disp=x|/}}) at [[Crowden-in-Longdendale]].

==National Parks and AONBs==
[[File:National Parks and AONBs in Northern England.svg|thumb|right|250px|National parks {{Colorsample|#85c676ff}} and AONBs {{Colorsample|#f288b5ff}} in Northern England]]
Considerable areas of the Pennines are protected as [[National parks of the United Kingdom|UK national parks]] and [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONBs). Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty are afforded much the same protection as national parks. The national parks within the Pennines are the [[Peak District|Peak District National Park]] (1) and the [[Yorkshire Dales|Yorkshire Dales National Park]] (7) with the [[Northumberland National Park]] (9) sometimes also included.

The [[North Pennines]] AONB just north of the Yorkshire Dales rivals the national park in size and includes some of the Pennines' highest peaks and its most isolated and sparsely populated areas. Other AONBs are [[Nidderdale]] east of the Yorkshire Dales, and the [[Forest of Bowland|Bowland Fells]], including [[Pendle Hill]], west of the Yorkshire Dales.

==Language==
The language used in pre-Roman and Roman times was [[Common Brittonic]]. During the [[Early Middle Ages]], the [[Cumbric language]] developed. Little evidence of Cumbric remains, so it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it was distinct from [[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]. The extent of the region in which Cumbric was spoken is also unknown.

During [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] times the area was settled by Anglian peoples of [[Mercia]] and [[Northumbria]], rather than the [[Saxon people]] of [[Southern England]]. [[Celtic languages|Celtic speech]] remained in most areas of the Pennines longer than it did in the surrounding areas of England. Eventually, the Celtic tongue of the Pennines was replaced by early [[English language|English]] as Anglo-Saxons and Vikings settled the area and assimilated the Celts.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Social History of English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dy-EAgAAQBAJ&q=Celtic+speech+remained+in+most+areas+of+the+Pennines+longer+than+it+did+in+the+surrounding+areas+of+England&pg=PA15|page=15 |publisher=Routledge |date=2005 |first=Dick |last=Leith |isbn=113471145X |access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref>

During the [[Viking Age]] Scandinavian settlers brought their language, [[Old Norse]]. The fusion of Norse influences into Old English was important in the formation of [[Middle English]] and hence Modern English, and many individual [[List of English words of Old Norse origin|words of Norse descent]] remain in use in local dialects, such as [[Yorkshire accent and dialect|that of Yorkshire]], and in local place names.

==Folklore and customs==
The folklore and customs are mostly based on [[Celts|Celtic]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] and [[Viking]] customs and folklore.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}} Many customs and stories have their origin in Christianised pagan traditions.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}} In the Peak District, a notable custom is [[well dressing]], which has its origin in pagan traditions that became Christianised.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ritual Journeys With Great British Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6xf9nYgsxAC&q=peak+district+well+dressing+pagan+traditions+christianised&pg=PA148|page=148|first=Susie |last=Fox |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1466946521 |date=2012 |access-date=9 November 2017}}</ref>

==Flora==
Flora in the higher Pennines is adapted to [[moorland]] and subarctic landscapes and climates. The flora found there can be found in other areas of moorland in [[Northern Europe]] and some species are also found in areas of [[tundra]]. In the Pennine millstone grit areas above an altitude of {{convert|900|ft}} the topsoil is so acidic, [[pH]] 2 to 4, that it can grow only [[bracken]], [[Ericaceae|heather]], [[sphagnum]], and coarse grasses<ref name="DB" /> such as [[cottongrass]], [[Molinia caerulea|purple moor grass]] and [[Juncus|heath rush]].<ref name=kelsall>{{cite book |title=The Yorkshire Dales: South and West |last1=Kelsall |first1=Dennis |first2=Jan |last2=Kelsall |year=2008 |publisher=Cicerone |location=Milnthorpe |isbn=978-1-85284-485-1 |page=26}}</ref> As the [[Ice age]] [[Ice sheet|glacial sheets]] retreated c.&nbsp;11,500 BC trees returned and archaeological [[palynology]] can identify their species. The first trees to settle were willow, birch and juniper, followed later by alder and pine. By 6500 BC temperatures were warmer and woodlands covered 90% of the dales with mostly pine, elm, lime and oak. On the limestone soils the oak was slower to colonize and pine and birch predominated. Around 3000 BC a noticeable decline in tree pollen indicates that neolithic farmers were clearing woodland to increase grazing for domestic livestock, and studies at [[Linton, North Yorkshire|Linton Mires]] and [[Eshton|Eshton Tarn]] find an increase in grassland species.<ref name=landcape>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Robert |title=The Yorkshire Dales, A landscape Through Time |orig-year=1997 |edition=new |year=2005 |publisher=Great Northern Books |location=Ilkley, Yorkshire |isbn=1-905080-05-0}}</ref> On poorly drained impermeable areas of millstone grit, shale or clays the topsoil gets waterlogged in winter and spring. Here tree suppression combined with the heavier rainfall results in [[blanket bog]] up to {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on|0|order=flip}} thick. The erosion of peat still exposes stumps of ancient trees.<ref name=landcape/>
{{blockquote|text="In digging it away they frequently find vast fir trees, perfectly sound, and some oaks&nbsp;..."|sign= [[Arthur Young (writer)|Arthur Young]]|source= ''A Six Months' Tour of the North of England'' (1770)<ref name="young">{{cite book |author-link=Arthur Young (agriculturist) |first=Arthur |last=Young |date=1770 |title=A Six Months' Tour of the North of England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOA_AQAAMAAJ&q=in+digging+it+away&pg=PA270 |page=270 |publisher=W. Strahan}}</ref>}}

Limestone areas of the Pennines in the [[White Peak]],<ref name="cressbrook">{{cite web |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/nature-reserves-important-plant-areas/nature-reserves/deep-dale |title=Deep Dale |publisher=Plantlife |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> Yorkshire Dales<ref name="dales_plantlife">{{cite web |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/nature-reserves-important-plant-areas/important-plant-areas/yorkshire-dales-limestone |title=Yorkshire Dales Limestone IPA |publisher=Plantlife |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> and [[Upper Teesdale]]<ref name="plantlife_teesdale">{{cite web |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/nature-reserves-important-plant-areas/important-plant-areas/moor-house-upper-teesdale |title=Moor House to Upper Teesdale IPA |publisher=Plantlife |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> have been designated as nature reserves or Important Plant Areas by the botanical conservation charity [[Plantlife]],<ref name="ipas">{{cite web |url=https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/nature-reserves-important-plant-areas/important-plant-areas |title=Important Plant Areas |publisher=Plantflie |access-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> and are nationally important for their wildflowers.

==Fauna==
[[File:Two grouse "picked" after the previous day's shoot. - geograph.org.uk - 547403.jpg|thumb|left|Shooting of [[red grouse]] is an economically important activity in the Pennines.{{Citation needed|reason=I can't find any sources which confirm significant economic importance.|date=March 2023}}]]

Fauna in the Pennines is similar to the rest of [[Fauna of England|England]] and [[Fauna of Wales|Wales]], but the area hosts some specialised species. Deer are found throughout the Pennines and some species of animals that are rare elsewhere in England can be found here. [[Arctic hare]]s, which were common in Britain during the Ice Age and retreated to the cooler, more tundra-like uplands once the climate warmed up, were introduced to the [[Dark Peak]] area of the [[Peak District]] in the 19th century.

Large areas of heather moorland in the Pennines are managed for [[driven grouse shooting|driven shooting]] of wild [[red grouse]]. The related and declining [[black grouse]] is still found in northern parts of the Pennines. Other birds whose English breeding strongholds are in the Pennines include [[European golden plover|golden plover]], [[common snipe|snipe]], [[Eurasian curlew|curlew]], [[dunlin]], [[Merlin (bird)|merlin]], [[short-eared owl]], [[ring ouzel]] and [[twite]],<ref name="BTO93Atlas">{{cite book |title=The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland: 1998–1991 |author=Gibbons|publisher=T & A D Poyser |isbn=0-85661-075-5 |year=1993|display-authors=etal}}</ref> though many of these are at the southern limit of their distributions and are more common in Scotland.

== See also ==
* [[Geography of England]]
* [[Geology of Great Britain]]
* [[Geology of Yorkshire]]
*[[North Pennines]]
* [[South Pennines]]
* [[Yorkshire Three Peaks]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Pennines (hills)}}
* [http://www.pennineedgeforest.org.uk/ The Pennine Edge Forest Network]
* [http://www.pennineprospects.co.uk/ Pennine Prospects]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Pennine Chain |short=x}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pennines| ]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of England]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of Derbyshire|Pennines]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of Cumbria|Pennines]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of Greater Manchester|Pennines]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of Yorkshire|Pennines]]
[[Category:Hills of Northumberland|Pennines]]
[[Category:Hills of Staffordshire]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of England]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Northern England]]