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rv again, still better before. Examples should be essentially meaningless, to make clear that it is the form, not the content, that is significant, as in Lorem ipsum. Please use the talk page to make a case for your changes: "because I like it" is not a good enough reason.
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{{Short description|Lowercase letters as small capitals}}
{{About|typography||Small cap (disambiguation){{!}}Small cap}}
{{Other uses|Small cap (disambiguation){{!}}Small cap}}
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{{Short description|Lowercase characters that resemble uppercase letters except smaller in height}}
[[File:Small caps vs petite caps.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Small caps, petite caps and [[Italic type|italic]] used for [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]]]]

[[File:Small caps vs petite caps.svg|thumb|300px|Small caps, petite caps and [[Italic type|italic]] used for [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]]]]
[[File:True vs Scaled Small Caps.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|True small caps (top), compared with scaled small caps (bottom), generated by [[OpenOffice.org Writer]]]]
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In [[typography]], '''small caps''' (short for '''small capitals''') are [[grapheme|character]]s typeset with [[glyph]]s that resemble [[uppercase]] letters but reduced in height and weight close to the surrounding [[lowercase]] letters or [[text figures]].<ref name="Smith JPHS">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Margaret M. |year=1993 |title=The Pre-history of 'Small caps': from all caps to smaller capitals to small caps |journal=Journal of the Printing Historical Society |volume=22 |issue=79–106}}</ref> This is technically not a case-transformation, but a substitution of glyphs, although the effect is often approximated by case-transformation and scaling. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis that is less dominant than all uppercase text, and as a method of emphasis or distinctiveness for text alongside or instead of [[italics]], or when [[boldface]] is inappropriate. For example, the text "Text in small caps" appears as {{Smallcaps|Text in small caps}} in small caps. Small caps can be used to draw attention to the opening phrase or line of a new section of text, or to provide an additional style in a dictionary entry where many parts must be typographically differentiated.
[[File:True vs Scaled Small Caps.svg|thumb| 300px|True small caps (top), compared with scaled small caps (bottom), generated by [[OpenOffice.org Writer]]]]
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In [[typography]], '''small caps''' (short for "'''small capitals'''") are [[grapheme|character]]s typeset with [[glyph]]s that resemble [[letter case|uppercase]] letters (capitals) but reduced in height and weight close to the surrounding [[letter case|lowercase]] letters or [[text figures]].<ref name="Smith JPHS">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Margaret M.|title=The Pre-history of 'Small caps': from all caps to smaller capitals to small caps|journal=Journal of the Printing Historical Society|volume=22|issue=79–106}}</ref> This is technically not a case-transformation, but a substitution of glyphs, although the effect is often approximated by case-transformation and scaling. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis that is less dominant than all uppercase text, and as a method of emphasis or distinctiveness for text alongside or instead of [[italics]], or when [[boldface]] is inappropriate. For example, the text "Text in small caps" appears as {{Smallcaps|Text in small caps}} in small caps. Small caps can be used to draw attention to the opening phrase or line of a new section of text, or to provide an additional style in a dictionary entry where many parts must be typographically differentiated.


Well-designed small capitals are not simply scaled-down versions of normal capitals; they normally retain the same stroke weight as other letters and have a wider [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] for readability.
Well-designed small capitals are not simply scaled-down versions of normal capitals; they normally retain the same stroke weight as other letters and have a wider [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] for readability.


{{anchor|petite caps}}
{{anchor|petite caps}}
Typically, the height of a small capital glyph will be one [[x-height|ex]], the same height as most [[lowercase]] characters in the font. In fonts with relatively low x-height, however, small caps may be somewhat larger than this. For example, in some Tiro Typeworks fonts, small caps glyphs are 30% larger than x-height, and 70% the height of full capitals. To differentiate between these two alternatives, the x-height form is sometimes called '''petite caps''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_pt.htm#pcap |title=OpenType Layout tag registry |publisher=Microsoft.com |date=2008-11-19 |access-date=2014-05-15}}</ref> preserving the name "small caps" for the larger variant.
Typically, the height of a small capital glyph will be one [[x-height|ex]], the same height as most [[lowercase]] characters in the font. In fonts with relatively low x-height, however, small caps may be somewhat larger than this. For example, in some Tiro Typeworks fonts, small caps glyphs are 30% larger than x-height, and 70% the height of full capitals. To differentiate between these two alternatives, the x-height form is sometimes called '''petite caps''',<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-11-19 |title=OpenType Layout tag registry |url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_pt.htm#pcap |access-date=2014-05-15 |publisher=Microsoft}}</ref> preserving the name "small caps" for the larger variant.
[[OpenType]] fonts can define both forms via the "small caps" and the "petite caps" features. When the support for the petite caps feature is absent from a [[Desktop publishing|desktop-publishing]] program, x-height small caps are often substituted.
[[OpenType]] fonts can define both forms via the "small caps" and the "petite caps" features. When the support for the petite caps feature is absent from a [[desktop publishing]] program, x-height small caps are often substituted.


Many [[word processor]]s and [[Text formatting|text-formatting]] systems include an option to format [[Character (computer)|text]] in caps and small caps, which leaves uppercase letters as they are, but converts [[lowercase]] letters to small caps. How this is implemented depends on the typesetting system; some can use true small caps glyphs that are included in modern professional [[typeface]]s ([[font family|font families]]); but less complex [[computer font]]s do not have small-caps glyphs, so the typesetting system simply reduces the uppercase letters by a fraction (often 1.5 to 2 points less than the base scale). However, this will make the characters look somewhat out of proportion. A work-around to simulate real small capitals is to use a [[Font#Weight|one-level bolder]] version of the small caps generated by such systems, to match well with the normal [[Font#Weight|weights]] of capitals and lowercase, especially when such small caps are extended about 5% or letter-spaced a half point or a point.<!-- This stuff about specific point increases depends directly on the size of type being worked with. Letterspacing half a point for 150-point characters is much different from doing it for 5-point characters. -->
Many [[word processor]]s and [[text formatting]] systems include an option to format [[Character (computer)|text]] in caps and small caps, which leaves uppercase letters as they are, but converts [[lowercase]] letters to small caps. How this is implemented depends on the typesetting system; some can use true small caps glyphs that are included in modern professional [[typeface]]s; but less complex [[computer font]]s do not have small-caps glyphs, so the typesetting system simply reduces the uppercase letters by a fraction (often 1.5 to 2 points less than the base scale). However, this will make the characters look somewhat out of proportion. A work-around to simulate real small capitals is to use a bolder version of the small caps generated by such systems, to match well with the normal [[Font#Weight|weights]] of capitals and lowercase, especially when such small caps are extended about 5% or letter-spaced a half point or a point.<!-- This stuff about specific point increases depends directly on the size of type being worked with. Letterspacing half a point for 150-point characters is much different from doing it for 5-point characters. -->


==Uses==
== Uses ==
Small caps are often used in sections of text that are unremarkable and thus a run of uppercase capital letters might imply an emphasis that is not intended. For example, the style of some publications, like ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and ''[[The Economist]]'', is to use small caps for [[acronym]]s and [[initialism]]s longer than three letters<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wright|first=Robin|date=July 26, 2020|title=What Does NATO Do, Anyway?|magazine=The New Yorker|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-does-nato-do-anyway|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sorkin|first=Amy|date=June 12, 2020|title=What the W.H.O. Meant to Say About Asymptomatic People Spreading the Coronavirus|magazine=The New Yorker|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/what-the-who-meant-to-say-about-asymptomatic-people-spreading-the-coronavirus|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref>—thus "U.S." and "W.H.O." in normal caps but "{{Smallcaps|nato}}" in small caps.
Small caps are often used in sections of text that are unremarkable and thus a run of uppercase capital letters might imply an emphasis that is not intended. For example, the style of some publications, like ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and ''[[The Economist]]'', is to use small caps for [[acronym]]s and [[initialism]]s longer than three letters<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Wright |first=Robin |date=July 26, 2020 |title=What Does NATO Do, Anyway? |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-does-nato-do-anyway |access-date=November 20, 2020 |magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sorkin |first=Amy |date=June 12, 2020 |title=What the W.H.O. Meant to Say About Asymptomatic People Spreading the Coronavirus |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/what-the-who-meant-to-say-about-asymptomatic-people-spreading-the-coronavirus |access-date=November 20, 2020 |magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref>—thus "U.S." and "W.H.O." in normal caps but "{{Smallcaps|nato}}" in small caps.


The initialisms [[Anno Domini|{{Smallcaps|ad}}]], [[Common Era|{{Smallcaps|ce}}]], [[ante meridiem|{{Smallcaps|am}}]], and [[post meridiem|{{Smallcaps|pm}}]] are sometimes typeset in small caps.{{cn|date=October 2021}}<!-- See also [[12-hour clock#Typography]] but it is not cited there either. -->
The initialisms [[Anno Domini|{{Smallcaps|ad}}]], [[Common Era|{{Smallcaps|ce}}]], [[ante meridiem|{{Smallcaps|am}}]], and [[post meridiem|{{Smallcaps|pm}}]] are sometimes typeset in small caps.{{cn|date=October 2021}}<!-- See also [[12-hour clock#Typography]] but it is not cited there either. -->


In printed plays small caps are used for [[stage directions]] and the names of characters before their lines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Detken |first=Anke |date=2018 |title=Kursiv Geschriebenes und Kapitälchen: Typologische Überlegungen zu Regiebemerkungen und Sprecherbezeichnungen in postdramatischen Theatertexten |journal=Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik |language=de |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=522–523 |doi=10.1007/s41244-018-0102-x |issn=0049-8653}}</ref>
In printed plays and stage directions, small caps are usually used for the names of characters before their lines.{{cn|date=May 2013}}


French and some British publications{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} use small caps to indicate the [[surname]] by which someone with a long formal name is to be designated in the rest of a written work. An elementary example is [[Don Quixote|Don {{Smallcaps|Quixote}} de La Mancha]]. Similarly, they are used for those languages in which the surname comes first, such as the Romanization [[Mao Zedong|{{Smallcaps|Mao}} Zedong]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}
Some publications use small caps to indicate surnames. An elementary example is [[Don Quixote|Don {{Smallcaps|Quixote}} de La Mancha]]. In the 21st century, the practice is gaining traction in scientific publications.<!--", although" ← was an incomplete sentence-->{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}


In many versions of the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]], the word "{{Smallcaps|Lord}}" is set in small caps.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary |publisher=Holman Bible Publishers |year=2003 |location=Nashville, TN |page=1046 |isbn=0-8054-2836-4}}</ref> Typically, an ordinary "Lord" corresponds to the use of the word ''[[Adonai]]'' in the original Hebrew, but the small caps "{{Smallcaps|Lord}}" corresponds to the use of ''[[Yahweh]]'' in the original; in some versions the compound "Lord {{Smallcaps|God}}" represents the Hebrew compound ''Adonai Yahweh''.
In many versions of the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]], the word "{{Smallcaps|Lord}}" is set in small caps.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary |publisher=Holman Bible Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=0-8054-2836-4 |location=Nashville, TN |page=1046}}</ref> Typically, an ordinary "Lord" corresponds to the use of the word ''[[Adonai]]'' in the original Hebrew, but the small caps "{{Smallcaps|Lord}}" corresponds to the use of ''[[Yahweh]]'' in the original; in some versions the compound "Lord {{Smallcaps|God}}" represents the Hebrew compound ''Adonai Yahweh''.


In zoological and botanical nomenclature, the small caps are occasionally used for [[genera]] and families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=S. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G52PDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=Vascular Plants of Texas: A Comprehensive Checklist Including Synonymy, Bibliography, and Index |last2=Wipff |first2=J. K. |last3=Montgomery |first3=P. M. |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-292-72962-9 |page=5 |access-date=2024-03-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=J.A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLhMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA208 |title=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |last2=American Museum of Natural History |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |year=1892 |series=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |page=208 |access-date=2024-03-25 |issue=v. 4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bouchard |first=P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-7K9ZeHNih8C&pg=PA896 |title=Family-group Names in Coleoptera (Insecta) |last2=Bousquet |first2=Y. |last3=Davies |first3=A.E. |last4=Alonso-Zarazaga |first4=M. A. |last5=Lawrence |first5=J. F. |last6=Lyal |first6=C. H. C. |last7=Newton |first7=A. F. |last8=Reid |first8=C. A. M. |last9=Schmitt |first9=M. |publisher=Pensoft |year=2011 |isbn=978-954-642-583-6 |series=ZooKeys |page=896 |access-date=2024-03-25 |last10=Slipinski |first10=S. A.}}</ref>
In zoological and botanical nomenclature, it is common use to print names of the [[Family (biology)|family]] group in small caps.{{cn|date=May 2013}}


In [[Computational complexity theory]], a sub-field of [[Computer science]], the formal names of algorithmic problem, e.g. MᴀxSAT, are sometimes set in small caps.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bourke|first=Chris|date=April 12, 2007|title=User's Guide for complexity: a LATEX package, Version 0.80|url=http://cse.unl.edu/~cbourke/latex/complexity.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504231437/http://cse.unl.edu/~cbourke/latex/complexity.pdf|archive-date=May 4, 2020|access-date=May 6, 2021}}</ref>
In [[computational complexity theory]], a sub-field of [[computer science]], the formal names of algorithmic problem, e.g. MᴀxSAT, are sometimes set in small caps.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bourke |first=Chris |date=April 12, 2007 |title=User's Guide for complexity: a LATEX package, Version 0.80 |url=http://cse.unl.edu/~cbourke/latex/complexity.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504231437/http://cse.unl.edu/~cbourke/latex/complexity.pdf |archive-date=May 4, 2020 |access-date=May 6, 2021}}</ref>


[[Linguistics|Linguists]] use small caps to analyze the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and tag ([[List of glossing abbreviations|gloss]]) the [[part of speech|parts of speech]] in a sentence; e.g.,
[[Linguists]] use small caps to analyze the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and tag ([[List of glossing abbreviations|gloss]]) the [[parts of speech]] in a sentence; e.g.,
{{interlinear|indent=3
: {|
|She || love-s || you.
|She love-s you.
|3SG.F.NOM love-3SG.PRS.IND 2|}}
|-
|3fs.{{Smallcaps|subj}} || love-3sg.{{Smallcaps|pres.ind}} || {{Smallcaps|2}}
|}


Linguists also use small caps to refer to the keywords in [[lexical sets]] for particular languages or dialects; e.g. the {{Smallcaps|fleece}} and {{Smallcaps|trap}} vowels in [[English phonology|English]].
Linguists also use small caps to refer to the keywords in [[lexical set]]s for particular languages or dialects; e.g. the {{Smallcaps|fleece}} and {{Smallcaps|trap}} vowels in English.


''The [[Bluebook]]'' prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.legalbluebook.com |title=The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation |publisher=Columbia Law Review Ass'n et al. |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-692-40019-7 |edition=20th |pages=149}}</ref>
''The [[Bluebook]]'' prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.legalbluebook.com |title=The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation |publisher=Columbia Law Review Ass'n et al. |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-692-40019-7 |edition=20th |pages=149}}</ref> The practice precedes [[World War I]], with [[Harvard Law Review]] using it while referring to itself. By 1915, small caps were used for all titles of journals and books.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Byron D. |year=1982 |title=Anglo-American Legal Citation: Historical Development and Library Implications |url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub/1745/ |journal=Law Library Journal |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=1745- |access-date=2024-03-19}}</ref>


In many books, when one part of the book mentions another part of the same book, or mentions the work as a whole, the name is set in small caps (sometimes typesetting small caps after transforming to Title Case), not [[italics]] and not roman type within [[quotation mark]]s. For example, articles in ''The [[World Book Encyclopedia]]'' refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the "Insurance" article's direction, at one point, to "See {{Smallcaps|No-Fault Insurance}}", "No-Fault Insurance" being another of the encyclopedia's articles.
In many books, mention of another part of the same book or mentions the work as a whole will be set in small caps. For example, articles in ''The [[World Book Encyclopedia]]'' refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the "Insurance" article's direction, at one point, to "See {{Smallcaps|No-Fault Insurance}}", "No-Fault Insurance" being another of the encyclopedia's articles.


===Criticism===
== History ==
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[[File:F16-0050 (33360746031).jpg|thumb|Small caps used by [[Johann Froben]] in the 1516 ''{{lang|la|[[Novum Instrumentum omne|Novum instrumentum]]}}'']]
[[George Eliot]]'s 1856 essay "Silly Novels by Lady Novelists" is critical of Victorian novelists for using excessive small caps and [[italics]] to indicate unnecessary emphasis.<ref name="Eliot">[http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/e/eliot/george/e42e/chapter6.html "Silly Novels by Lady Novelists"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330181709/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/e/eliot/george/e42e/chapter6.html |date=2019-03-30 }}, The Westminster Review (October 1856), Vol. 66 (old series), Vol. 10 (new series), pp. 442–461</ref>{{OR|date=November 2022}}
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Research by Margaret M. Smith concluded that the use of small caps was probably popularised by [[Johann Froben]] in the early 16th century, who used them extensively from 1516.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /> Froben may have been influenced by [[Aldus Manutius]], who used very small capitals with printing [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and at the start of lines of italic, copying a style common in manuscripts at the time, and sometimes used these capitals to set headings in his printing; as a result these headings were in all caps, but in capitals from a smaller font than the body text type.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /> The idea caught on in France, where small capitals were used by [[Simon de Colines]], [[Robert Estienne]] and [[Claude Garamond]].<ref name="Smith JPHS" /><ref name="Carter Ampersand 9.3" /><ref name="Vervliet Palaeotypography">{{Cite book |last=Vervliet |first=Hendrik D. L. |author-link=H. D. L. Vervliet |title=The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-041-6982-1 |location=Leiden |pages=36, 47, 52, 71, 75, 79, 202}}</ref> [[Johannes Philippus de Lignamine]] used small caps in the 1470s, but apparently was not copied at the time.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /><ref name="Carter Smith BPHS Letters">{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Matthew |last2=Smith |first2=Margaret M. |title=Letters |journal=Bulletin of the Printing Historical Society}}</ref><ref name="Carter Ampersand 9.3">{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Matthew |year=1989 |title=Letters to the Editor |journal=The Ampersand |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=2}}</ref>


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Small capitals are not found in all font designs, as traditionally in printing they were primarily used within the [[body text]] of books and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as [[sans-serif]] types which historically were not preferred for book printing.<ref name="The Evolution of Metro and its Reimagination as Metro Nova">{{Cite web |last=Shaw |first=Paul |title=The Evolution of Metro and its Reimagination as Metro Nova |url=http://typographica.org/on-typography/the-evolution-of-metro-its-reimagination-as-metro-nova/ |access-date=21 December 2016 |website=Typographica}}</ref> ''Fonts in Use'' reports that [[:de:Gert Wunderlich (Typograf)|Gert Wunderlich]]'s Maxima (1970), for [[Typoart]], was "maybe the first sans serif to feature small caps and optional [[oldstyle numerals]] across all weights."<ref name="FIU Maxima">{{Cite web |title=Maxima |url=https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/1843/maxima |access-date=6 October 2020 |website=Fonts in Use}}</ref> (Some caps-only typefaces intended for printing stationery, for instance [[Copperplate Gothic]] and [[Bank Gothic]], were intended to be used with smaller sizes serving as small capitals, and had no lower case as a result.<ref name="McGrew">{{Cite book |last=McGrew |first=Mac |title=American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century |year=1993 |publisher=Oak Knoll |isbn=0-938-76834-4 |edition=2nd |pages=22–23, 258–259}}</ref><ref name="ATF 1923">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/1923AmericanTypeFoundersSpecimenBookCatalogue |title=Specimen Book and Catalogue |year=1923 |publisher=[[American Type Founders]] |location=Jersey City, NJ |pages=334–349, 389–396 |access-date=8 October 2020}}</ref>)
==History==
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[[File:F16-0050 (33360746031).jpg|thumb|Small caps used by [[Johann Froben]] in the 1516 ''[[Novum Instrumentum omne|Novum instrumentum]]'']]
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Research by Margaret M. Smith concluded that the use of small caps was probably popularised by [[Johann Froben]] in the early 16th century, who used them extensively from 1516.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /> Froben may have been influenced by [[Aldus Manutius]], who used very small capitals with printing [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and at the start of lines of [[Italic type|italic]], copying a style common in manuscripts at the time, and sometimes used these capitals to set headings in his printing; as a result these headings were in all caps, but in capitals from a smaller font than the body text type.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /> The idea caught on in France, where small capitals were used by [[Simon de Colines]], [[Robert Estienne]] and [[Claude Garamond]].<ref name="Smith JPHS" /><ref name="Carter Ampersand 9.3" /><ref name="Vervliet Palaeotypography">{{cite book |last1=Vervliet |first1=Hendrik D. L. |author-link1=H. D. L. Vervliet |title=The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance : selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-16982-1 |pages=36, 47, 52, 71, 75, 79, 202, etc.}}</ref> [[Johannes Philippus de Lignamine]] used small caps in the 1470s, but apparently was not copied at the time.<ref name="Smith JPHS" /><ref name="Carter Smith BPHS Letters">{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Matthew |last2=Smith |first2=Margaret M. |title=Letters |journal=Bulletin of the Printing Historical Society}}</ref><ref name="Carter Ampersand 9.3">{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Matthew |title=Letters to the Editor |journal=The Ampersand |date=1989 |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=2}}</ref>


⚫
Italic small capitals were historically rarer than roman small caps. Some digital font families, sometimes digitisations of older metal type designs, still only have small caps in roman style and do not have small caps in bold or italic styles.<ref name="Design Dialogues">{{Cite web |last=Heller |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Heller (design writer) |title=Jonathan Hoefler on type design |url=http://www.hellerbooks.com/docs/interviews_dialogues.html |access-date=2 August 2016 |website=Design Dialogues}}</ref><ref name="Gilbertson Small caps">{{Cite web |last=Gilbertson |first=Alan |date=21 May 2015 |title=The Incredible Shrinking Italic Small Caps |url=https://indesignsecrets.com/the-incredible-shrinking-italic-small-caps.php |access-date=21 September 2020 |website=InDesign Secrets}}</ref> This is again because small caps were normally only used in [[body text]] and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary. An isolated early appearance was in the [[Joh. Enschedé|Enschedé]] type foundry specimen of 1768, which featured a set cut by [[Joan Michaël Fleischman]],<ref name="Enschedé specimen reprint">{{Cite book |last=Enschedé |first=Johannes |title=The Enschedé type specimens of 1768 and 1773: a facsimile |last2=Lane |first2=John A. |author-link2=John A. Lane |year=1993 |publisher=Stichting Museum Enschedé, the Enschedé Font Foundry, Uitgeverij De Buitenkant |isbn=9-070-38658-5 |page=63}}</ref><ref name="Enschedé 1768 specimen">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ww1NAAAAcAAJ |title=Proef van letteren, welke gegooten worden in de nieuwe Haerlemsche Lettergietery van J. Enschedé |year=1768 |publisher=J. Enschedé |location=Haarlem |access-date=3 June 2020|language=nl}}</ref> and in 1837 Thomas Adams commented that in the United States "small capitals are in general only cast to roman fonts" but that "some founders in England cast italic small capitals to most, if not the whole of their fonts."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adams |first=Thomas F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ME9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA67 |title=Typographia: A Brief Sketch of the Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Typographic Art: with Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office |year=1837 |location=Philadelphia |access-date=19 October 2023}}</ref>{{efn|Spelling and capitalisation modernised.}} (Bold type did not appear until the nineteenth century.) In 1956, [[Hugh Williamson (book designer)|Hugh Williamson]]'s textbook ''Methods of Book Design'' noted that "one of the most conspicuous defects" of contemporary book faces was that they did not generally feature italic small capitals: "these would certainly be widely used if they were generally available".<ref name="Methods of Book Design" /> Exceptions available at the time were Linotype's [[Eric Gill|Pilgrim]], [[Janson]] and their release of [[Monotype Garamond]], and from Monotype [[Jan van Krimpen|Romulus]].<ref name="Methods of Book Design">{{Cite book |last=Williamson |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Williamson (book designer) |title=Methods of Book Design |date=1956 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |pages=75–104}}</ref> More have appeared in the digital period, such as in [[Hoefler Text]] and [[FF Scala]].<ref name="Design Dialogues" /><ref name="Hoefler Text Grand Italics">{{Cite web |last=Hoefler |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Hoefler |title=Hoefler Text Font Features: Grand Italics |url=https://www.typography.com/fonts/hoefler-text/features/hoefler-text-grand-italics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415181354/https://www.typography.com/fonts/hoefler-text/features/hoefler-text-grand-italics |archive-date=15 April 2019 |access-date=15 April 2019 |publisher=Hoefler}}</ref><ref name="Majoor Scala">{{Cite book |last=Majoor |first=Martin |url=https://www.martinmajoor.com/1.1_scala_article_majoor.html |title=FontFont Focus No.1 |year=2000 |publisher=FontShop |access-date=20 September 2020}}</ref>
⚫
Small capitals are not found in all font designs, as traditionally in printing they were primarily used within the [[body text]] of books and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as [[sans-serif]] types which historically were not preferred for book printing.<ref name="The Evolution of Metro and its Reimagination as Metro Nova">{{cite web|title=The Evolution of Metro and its Reimagination as Metro Nova|url=http://typographica.org/on-typography/the-evolution-of-metro-its-reimagination-as-metro-nova/|website=Typographica|author=Shaw, Paul|access-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> ''Fonts in Use'' reports that [[:de:Gert Wunderlich (Typograf)|Gert Wunderlich]]'s Maxima (1970), for [[Typoart]], was "maybe the first sans serif to feature small caps and optional [[Text figures|oldstyle numerals]] across all weights."<ref name="FIU Maxima">{{cite web |title=Maxima |url=https://fontsinuse.com/typefaces/1843/maxima |website=Fonts in Use |access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref> (Some caps-only typefaces intended for printing stationery, for instance [[Copperplate Gothic]] and [[Bank Gothic]], were intended to be used with smaller sizes serving as small capitals, and had no lower case as a result.<ref name="McGrew">{{cite book |last1=McGrew |first1=Mac |title=American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century |isbn=0-938768-34-4 |pages=22–3, 258–259 |edition= Second, revised |date=1993 }}</ref><ref name="ATF 1923">{{cite book |title=Specimen Book and Catalogue |date=1923 |publisher=[[American Type Founders]] |location=Jersey City, NJ |pages=334–349, 389–396 |url=https://archive.org/details/1923AmericanTypeFoundersSpecimenBookCatalogue |access-date=8 October 2020}}</ref>)

⚫
Italic small capitals were historically rarer than roman (upright) small caps. Some digital font families, sometimes digitisations of older metal type designs, still only have small caps in the [[roman type|regular or roman]] style and do not have small caps in bold or italic styles.<ref name="Design Dialogues">{{cite web|last1=Heller|first1=Steven|author-link1=Steven Heller (design writer)|title=Jonathan Hoefler on type design|url=http://www.hellerbooks.com/docs/interviews_dialogues.html|website=Design Dialogues|access-date=2 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Gilbertson Small caps">{{cite web |last1=Gilbertson |first1=Alan |title=The Incredible Shrinking Italic Small Caps |url=https://indesignsecrets.com/the-incredible-shrinking-italic-small-caps.php |website=InDesign Secrets |date=21 May 2015 |access-date=21 September 2020}}</ref> This is again because small caps were normally only used in [[body text]] and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary. An isolated early appearance was in the [[Joh. Enschedé|Enschedé]] type foundry specimen of 1768, which featured a set cut by [[Joan Michaël Fleischman]],<ref name="Enschedé specimen reprint">{{cite book|last1=Enschedé|first1=Johannes|last2=Lane|first2=John A.|author-link2=John A. Lane|title=The Enschedé type specimens of 1768 and 1773: a facsimile|date=1993|publisher=Stichting Museum Enschedé, the Enschedé Font Foundry, Uitgeverij De Buitenkant|isbn=9070386585|page=63|edition=[Nachdr. d. Ausg.] 1768.}}</ref><ref name="Enschedé 1768 specimen">{{cite book |title=Proef van letteren, welke gegooten worden in de nieuwe Haerlemsche Lettergietery van J. Enschedé |date=1768 |publisher=J. Enschedé |location=Haarlem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ww1NAAAAcAAJ |access-date=3 June 2020}}</ref> and in 1837 Thomas Adams commented that in the United States "small capitals are in general only cast to roman fonts" but that "some founders in England cast italic small capitals to most, if not the whole of their fonts."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Thomas F. |title=Typographia: A Brief Sketch of the Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Typographic Art: with Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office |date=1837 |location=Philadelphia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ME9AAAAYAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA67 |access-date=19 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>{{efn|Spelling and capitalisation modernised.}} (Bold type did not appear until the nineteenth century.) In 1956, [[Hugh Williamson (book designer)|Hugh Williamson]]'s textbook ''Methods of Book Design'' noted that "one of the most conspicuous defects" of contemporary book faces was that they did not generally feature italic small capitals: "these would certainly be widely used if they were generally available".<ref name="Methods of Book Design" /> Exceptions available at the time were Linotype's [[Eric Gill|Pilgrim]], [[Janson]] and their release of [[Monotype Garamond]], and from Monotype [[Jan van Krimpen|Romulus]].<ref name="Methods of Book Design">{{cite book|last1=Williamson|first1=Hugh|author-link=Hugh Williamson (book designer)|title=Methods of Book Design|date=1956|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London|pages=75–104}}</ref> More have appeared in the digital period, such as in [[Hoefler Text]] and [[FF Scala]]/[[FF Scala Sans|Scala Sans]].<ref name="Design Dialogues"/><ref name="Hoefler Text Grand Italics">{{cite web|last1=Hoefler|first1=Jonathan|author-link1=Jonathan Hoefler|title=Hoefler Text Font Features: Grand Italics|url=https://www.typography.com/fonts/hoefler-text/features/hoefler-text-grand-italics|archive-date=15 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415181354/https://www.typography.com/fonts/hoefler-text/features/hoefler-text-grand-italics|publisher=[[Hoefler & Co.]]|access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="Majoor Scala">{{cite book |last1=Majoor |first1=Martin |title=FontFont Focus No.1 |date=2000 |publisher=[[FontShop]] |url=https://www.martinmajoor.com/1.1_scala_article_majoor.html |access-date=20 September 2020}}</ref>


==Computer support==
==Computer support==
===Fonts===
===Fonts===
The [[OpenType]] [[font]] standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two [[OpenType#Feature tags|feature tags]], <code>smcp</code> and <code>c2sc</code>.<ref name=ms_tag_rgstry>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_pt.htm |title="Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry" |publisher=Microsoft.com |date=2017-01-04 |access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref> A font may use the tag <code>smcp</code> to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag <code>c2sc</code> to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps.
The [[OpenType]] font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two feature tags, <code>smcp</code> and <code>c2sc</code>.<ref name="ms_tag_rgstry">{{Cite web |date=2017-01-04 |title="Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry" |url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_pt.htm |access-date=2017-07-29 |publisher=Microsoft}}</ref> A font may use the tag <code>smcp</code> to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag <code>c2sc</code> to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps. OpenType provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two feature tags, <code>pcap</code> and <code>c2pc</code>.<ref name="ms_tag_rgstry_2">{{Cite web |date=2008-10-08 |title="Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry" |url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_ae.htm |access-date=2014-05-15 |publisher=Microsoft}}</ref> A font may use the tag <code>pcap</code> to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag <code>c2pc</code> to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps.

⚫
[[Desktop publishing]] applications, as well as web browsers, can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so.<ref name="typotheque">{{Cite web |title=OpenType feature support" |url=http://www.typotheque.com/fonts/opentype_feature_support |access-date=2014-05-15 |publisher="Typotheque}}</ref> LibreOffice can use the {{code|1=fontname:pcap=1}} method.


===Word processors===
===Word processors===
Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's OpenType?|url=http://www.typography.com/techniques/opentype/|publisher=Hoefler & Frere-Jones|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>
Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What's OpenType? |url=http://www.typography.com/techniques/opentype/ |access-date=11 August 2014 |publisher=Hoefler & Frere-Jones}}</ref>


Most word processing applications, including [[Microsoft Word]] and [[Apple Pages|Pages]], do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts that include them, instead generating scaled ones. For these applications it is therefore easier to work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's [[EB Garamond]], in open beta.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Duffner|first1=Georg|title=Design of EB Garamond|url=http://www.georgduffner.at/ebgaramond/design.html|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> [[LibreOffice Writer]] started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name, a colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, <code>EB Garamond 12:smcp=1</code>,<ref name="LO5.3">{{cite web
Most word processing applications, including [[Microsoft Word]] and [[Apple Pages|Pages]], do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts that include them, instead generating scaled ones. For these applications it is therefore easier to work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's [[EB Garamond]], in open beta.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duffner |first=Georg |title=Design of EB Garamond |url=http://www.georgduffner.at/ebgaramond/design.html |access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> [[LibreOffice Writer]] started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name, a colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, <code>EB Garamond 12:smcp=1</code>,<ref name="LO5.3">{{Cite web |title=Release Notes 5.3 |url=http://wiki.documentfoundation.org/ReleaseNotes/5.3 |access-date=29 December 2016 |publisher=The Document Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2016 |title=Opentype features now enabled? Documentation? |url=https://ask.libreoffice.org/en/question/82052/opentype-features-now-enabled-documentation/ |access-date=29 December 2016 |publisher=Ask LibreOffice}}</ref> and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch.<ref name="lo6.2">{{Cite web |title=ReleaseNotes/6.2 |url=https://wiki.documentfoundation.org/ReleaseNotes/6.2 |access-date=26 February 2019 |website=Wiki |publisher=The Document Foundation}}</ref>
| title = Release Notes 5.3
| url = http://wiki.documentfoundation.org/ReleaseNotes/5.3
| publisher = [[The Document Foundation]]
| work = Wiki
| access-date = 29 December 2016
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Opentype features now enabled? Documentation?
| date = 18 November 2016
| url = https://ask.libreoffice.org/en/question/82052/opentype-features-now-enabled-documentation/
| publisher = Ask LibreOffice
| access-date = 29 December 2016
}}</ref> and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch.<ref name="lo6.2">{{cite web | url=https://wiki.documentfoundation.org/ReleaseNotes/6.2 |title=ReleaseNotes/6.2 |publisher=[[The Document Foundation]] |work=Wiki|access-date=26 February 2019}}</ref>


===Unicode===
===Unicode<span class="anchor" id="Unicode"></span>===
{{broader|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
{{Contains special characters|Uncommon Unicode|section}}
{{Contains special characters|Uncommon Unicode|section}}
Although small caps are [[allograph]]s of their full size equivalents (and so not usually "semantically important"), the [[Unicode]] standard does define a number of "small capital" characters in the [[IPA extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions]] and [[Latin Extended-D]] ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters, with official names such as {{Smallcaps|{{lc:LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL A}}}}, are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, '''ʀ''' represents a [[uvular trill]]. They should not normally be used in other contexts; rather, the basic character set should be used with suitable formatting controls as described in the preceding sections.
Although small caps are [[allograph]]s of their full size equivalents (and so not usually "semantically important"), the [[Unicode]] standard does define a number of "small capital" characters in the [[IPA extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions]] and [[Latin Extended-D]] ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters, with official names such as {{Smallcaps|{{lc:LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL L}}}}, are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, '''ʀ''' represents a [[uvular trill]], and '''ɢ''' represents a [[voiced uvular plosive]]. They should not normally be used in other contexts;{{efn|Text set using these characters suffers a number of deficiencies in comparison with text formatted using the basic character set. A number of characters have no "small capital" [[code point]]s, including the standard English letter [[X]], and the disparate applications intended for the various supported characters means they may appear differently⁠-⁠sized or -⁠styled, even within a single typeface. The use of these characters is furthermore disabling, as they are not generally intelligible to the [[screen reader]]s used by blind people; nor, typically, is text set using these characters recognised by general-purpose translation tools.}} rather, the basic character set should be used with suitable formatting controls as described in the preceding sections.

As of Unicode {{Unicode version|version=15.1}}, the only character missing from the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]] is the small-capital version of X.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/ucd/|title=Unicode character database|work=The Unicode Standard|access-date=2023-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/enumeratedversions.html|title=Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard|work=The Unicode Standard|access-date=2023-09-12}}</ref>

The following table shows the existing Unicode small capital characters from the ISO basic Latin alphabet:


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;
Line 87: Line 66:
| ||A||B||C||D||E||F||G||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O||P||Q||R||S||T||U||V||W||X||Y||Z
| ||A||B||C||D||E||F||G||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O||P||Q||R||S||T||U||V||W||X||Y||Z
|-
|-
| inline||ᴀ||ʙ||ᴄ||ᴅ||ᴇ||ꜰ||ɢ||ʜ||ɪ||ᴊ||ᴋ||ʟ||ᴍ||ɴ||ǫ||ᴘ||ꞯ||ʀ||ꜱ||ᴛ||ᴜ||ᴠ||ᴡ||x||ʏ||ᴢ
| inline||ᴀ||ʙ||ᴄ||ᴅ||ᴇ||ꜰ||ɢ||ʜ||ɪ||ᴊ||ᴋ||ʟ||ᴍ||ɴ||ᴏ||ᴘ||ꞯ||ʀ||ꜱ||ᴛ||ᴜ||ᴠ||ᴡ||{{no|–}}||ʏ||ᴢ
|-
|-
| superscript|| ||𐞄|| || || || ||𐞒||𐞖||ᶦ|| || ||ᶫ|| ||ᶰ|| || || ||𐞪|| || ||ᶸ|| || || ||𐞲||
| superscript|| ||𐞄|| || || || ||𐞒||𐞖||ᶦ|| || ||ᶫ|| ||ᶰ|| || || ||𐞪|| || ||ᶸ|| || || ||𐞲||
|-
|-
| overscript|| || || || || || ||◌ᷛ|| || || || ||◌ᷞ||◌ᷟ||◌ᷡ|| || || ||◌ᷢ|| || || || || || || ||
| overscript|| || || || || || ||◌ᷛ|| || || || ||◌ᷞ||◌ᷟ||◌ᷡ|| || || ||◌ᷢ|| || || || || || || ||
Line 96: Line 75:
Additionally, a few less-common Latin characters, several [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] characters, and a single [[Cyrillic]] character used in Latin-script notation (small capital [[Л]]: ᴫ), also have small capitals encoded:
Additionally, a few less-common Latin characters, several [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] characters, and a single [[Cyrillic]] character used in Latin-script notation (small capital [[Л]]: ᴫ), also have small capitals encoded:


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
|-
|colspan=25|Extended Latin
|colspan=25|Extended Latin
Line 104: Line 83:
| inline||{{no|–}}||ᴁ||ᴃ||ᴆ||ⱻ||ʛ||𝼂||ᵻ||𝼐||ᴌ||𝼄||ᴎ||ɶ||ᴐ||ᴕ||ᴙ||ᴚ||ʁ||ꭆ||ꝶ||ᵾ||ꟺ||ᴣ
| inline||{{no|–}}||ᴁ||ᴃ||ᴆ||ⱻ||ʛ||𝼂||ᵻ||𝼐||ᴌ||𝼄||ᴎ||ɶ||ᴐ||ᴕ||ᴙ||ᴚ||ʁ||ꭆ||ꝶ||ᵾ||ꟺ||ᴣ
|-
|-
| superscript||𐞀|||| || || ||𐞔|| ||ᶧ|| || ||𐞜|| ||𐞣|| || || || ||ʶ|| || || ||
| superscript||𐞀|||| || || ||𐞔|| ||ᶧ|| || ||𐞜|| ||𐞣|| || || || ||ʶ|| || || || ||
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center;
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
|-
| colspan="12" |Greek<ref>Supported letters, plus those that cannot be substituted with Latin.</ref>
| colspan="12" |Greek{{efn|Supported letters, plus those that cannot be substituted with Latin.}}
|-
|-
| ||Γ||Δ||Θ||Λ||Ξ||Π||Ρ||Σ||Φ||Ψ||Ω
| ||Γ||Δ||Θ||Λ||Ξ||Π||Ρ||Σ||Φ||Ψ||Ω
Line 116: Line 95:
|}
|}


===In Unicode standards===
==== Labels<span class="anchor" id="In Unicode standards"></span> ====
The [[Unicode Consortium]] has a typographical convention of using small caps for formal Unicode character names in running text. For example, the name of U+0416 Ж is conventionally shown as {{smallcaps all|CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE}}.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Appendix A, Notational Conventions |chapter-url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/appA.pdf |title=The Unicode Standard 15.0.0 |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]] |date=13 September 2022 |page=968}}</ref>
The [[Unicode Consortium]] has a typographical convention of using small caps for its formal names for symbols, in running text. For example, the name of {{unichar|0416}} is conventionally shown as {{smallcaps all|CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE}}.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ |title=The Unicode Standard 15.0.0 |date=13 September 2022 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |page=968 |chapter=Appendix A, Notational Conventions |chapter-url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/appA.pdf}}</ref>


===Cascading Style Sheets===
=== CSS ===
Small caps can be specified in the web page presentation language [[CSS]] using {{code|font-variant: small-caps;|CSS}}. For example, the [[HTML]]
Small caps can be specified in the web page presentation language [[CSS]] using {{code|font-variant: small-caps|CSS}}. For example, the [[HTML]]
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Jane Doe</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant: small-caps">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>}}
renders as
renders as
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant: small-caps;">Jane Doe</span>
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant: small-caps;">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>.
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant: small-caps">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>.


Since the CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser.
Since CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser.


[[CSS3]] can specify OpenType small caps (given the "smcp" feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using {{code|font-variant-caps: small-caps;|CSS}}, which is the recommended way, or {{code|font-feature-settings: 'smcp';|CSS}}, which is (as of May 2014) the most widely used way. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.
[[CSS3]] can specify OpenType small caps (given the <code>smcp</code> feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using <syntaxhighlight lang=css inline>font-variant-caps: small-caps</syntaxhighlight>, which is the recommended way, or <syntaxhighlight lang=css inline>font-feature-settings: 'smcp'</syntaxhighlight>, which is the most widely used method {{as of|May 2014}}. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps;">Jane Doe</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-feature-settings: 'smcp';">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>}}
:{{code|lang=html|code=<span style="font-feature-settings: 'smcp'">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>}}
renders as
renders as
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant-caps: small-caps;">Jane Doe</span>
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-variant-caps: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-feature-settings: 'smcp';">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>
:<span style="font-family:'Libertinus Serif','Linux Libertine','Linux Libertine G','Georgia Pro',Georgia,Times,serif;font-feature-settings: 'smcp'">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>


⚫
{{As of|June 2023}}, CSS3 can specify petite caps by using <syntaxhighlight lang=css inline>font-variant: petite-caps</syntaxhighlight><ref name="CSSFontLevel3">{{Cite web |date=2018-09-20 |title="W3C Recommendation: CSS Fonts Module Level 3" |url=https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/REC-css-fonts-3-20180920/#font-variant-caps-prop |access-date=2023-06-09 |publisher=W3.org}}</ref> or <syntaxhighlight lang=css inline>font-feature-settings: 'pcap'</syntaxhighlight>. If the font does not have petite cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.
({{code|font-variant-caps: small-caps;|CSS}} is exactly equivalent to {{code|font-variant: small-caps;|CSS}}.)


⚫
== See also ==
==Computer support for petite caps==

===Fonts===
The [[OpenType]] [[font]] standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two [[OpenType#Feature tags|feature tags]], <code>pcap</code> and <code>c2pc</code>.<ref name=ms_tag_rgstry_2>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_ae.htm |title="Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry" |publisher=Microsoft.com |date=2008-10-08 |access-date=2014-05-15}}</ref> A font may use the tag <code>pcap</code> to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag <code>c2pc</code> to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps.

⚫
[[Desktop publishing]] applications, as well as [[web browsers]], can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so.<ref name=typotheque>{{cite web|url=http://www.typotheque.com/fonts/opentype_feature_support |title=OpenType feature support" |publisher="Typotheque |access-date=2014-05-15}}</ref> LibreOffice can use the {{code|1=fontname:pcap=1}} method.

===Cascading Style Sheets===

⚫
As of June 2023, CSS3 can specify petite caps, similar to small caps, by using {{Code|font-variant: petite-caps;|CSS}},<ref name="CSSFontLevel3">{{cite web |date=2018-09-20 |title="W3C Recommendation: CSS Fonts Module Level 3" |url=https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/REC-css-fonts-3-20180920/#font-variant-caps-prop |access-date=2023-06-09 |publisher=W3.org}}</ref> or by using <syntaxhighlight lang=css inline>font-feature-settings: 'pcap';</syntaxhighlight>. If the font does not have petite-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.

⚫
==See also==
* [[All caps]]
* [[All caps]]
* [[Alphabet 26]]
* [[Alphabet 26]]
Line 155: Line 123:
* [[Mixed case]]
* [[Mixed case]]


==References==
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{notelist|colwidth=30em}}
⚫
==Further reading==
* Willberg, Hans and Forssman, Friedrich (2010). ''Lesetypografie.'' Verlag Hermann Schmitz, Mainz. {{ISBN|978-3-87439-800-8}}.
* Bringhurst, Robert (2004). ''The Elements of Typographic Style (version 3.0).'' Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. {{ISBN|0-88179-205-5}}.


⚫
== Further reading ==
==External links==
{{Refbegin}}
*[http://gandalf.aksis.uib.no/mufi/proposal/range3-v2.html A proposal for supplementary characters in Unicode: Medieval Nordic. Subrange 3: Small capitals] at [[Medieval Unicode Font Initiative]]
* {{Cite book|last=Bringhurst|first=Robert|title=The Elements of Typographic Style|year=2004|publisher=Hartley & Marks|isbn=978-0-881-79205-8|edition=3rd|location=Point Roberts, WA}}
{{Refend}}


{{Typography terms}}
{{Typography terms}}

Revision as of 23:13, 30 June 2024

For other uses, see Small cap.
Small caps, petite caps and italic used for emphasis
True small caps (top), compared with scaled small caps (bottom), generated by OpenOffice.org Writer

In typography, small caps (short for small capitals) are characters typeset with glyphs that resemble uppercase letters but reduced in height and weight close to the surrounding lowercase letters or text figures.[1] This is technically not a case-transformation, but a substitution of glyphs, although the effect is often approximated by case-transformation and scaling. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis that is less dominant than all uppercase text, and as a method of emphasis or distinctiveness for text alongside or instead of italics, or when boldface is inappropriate. For example, the text "Text in small caps" appears as Text in small caps in small caps. Small caps can be used to draw attention to the opening phrase or line of a new section of text, or to provide an additional style in a dictionary entry where many parts must be typographically differentiated.

Well-designed small capitals are not simply scaled-down versions of normal capitals; they normally retain the same stroke weight as other letters and have a wider aspect ratio for readability.

Typically, the height of a small capital glyph will be one ex, the same height as most lowercase characters in the font. In fonts with relatively low x-height, however, small caps may be somewhat larger than this. For example, in some Tiro Typeworks fonts, small caps glyphs are 30% larger than x-height, and 70% the height of full capitals. To differentiate between these two alternatives, the x-height form is sometimes called petite caps,[2] preserving the name "small caps" for the larger variant. OpenType fonts can define both forms via the "small caps" and the "petite caps" features. When the support for the petite caps feature is absent from a desktop publishing program, x-height small caps are often substituted.

Many word processors and text formatting systems include an option to format text in caps and small caps, which leaves uppercase letters as they are, but converts lowercase letters to small caps. How this is implemented depends on the typesetting system; some can use true small caps glyphs that are included in modern professional typefaces; but less complex computer fonts do not have small-caps glyphs, so the typesetting system simply reduces the uppercase letters by a fraction (often 1.5 to 2 points less than the base scale). However, this will make the characters look somewhat out of proportion. A work-around to simulate real small capitals is to use a bolder version of the small caps generated by such systems, to match well with the normal weights of capitals and lowercase, especially when such small caps are extended about 5% or letter-spaced a half point or a point.

Uses

Small caps are often used in sections of text that are unremarkable and thus a run of uppercase capital letters might imply an emphasis that is not intended. For example, the style of some publications, like The New Yorker and The Economist, is to use small caps for acronyms and initialisms longer than three letters[3][4]—thus "U.S." and "W.H.O." in normal caps but "nato" in small caps.

The initialisms ad, ce, am, and pm are sometimes typeset in small caps.[citation needed]

In printed plays small caps are used for stage directions and the names of characters before their lines.[5]

Some publications use small caps to indicate surnames. An elementary example is Don Quixote de La Mancha. In the 21st century, the practice is gaining traction in scientific publications.[citation needed]

In many versions of the Old Testament of the Bible, the word "Lord" is set in small caps.[6] Typically, an ordinary "Lord" corresponds to the use of the word Adonai in the original Hebrew, but the small caps "Lord" corresponds to the use of Yahweh in the original; in some versions the compound "Lord God" represents the Hebrew compound Adonai Yahweh.

In zoological and botanical nomenclature, the small caps are occasionally used for genera and families.[7][8][9]

In computational complexity theory, a sub-field of computer science, the formal names of algorithmic problem, e.g. MᴀxSAT, are sometimes set in small caps.[10]

Linguists use small caps to analyze the morphology and tag (gloss) the parts of speech in a sentence; e.g.,

She

3SG.F.NOM

love-s

love-3SG.PRS.IND

you.

2

She love-s you.

3SG.F.NOM love-3SG.PRS.IND 2

Linguists also use small caps to refer to the keywords in lexical sets for particular languages or dialects; e.g. the fleece and trap vowels in English.

The Bluebook prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations.[11] The practice precedes World War I, with Harvard Law Review using it while referring to itself. By 1915, small caps were used for all titles of journals and books.[12]

In many books, mention of another part of the same book or mentions the work as a whole will be set in small caps. For example, articles in The World Book Encyclopedia refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the "Insurance" article's direction, at one point, to "See No-Fault Insurance", "No-Fault Insurance" being another of the encyclopedia's articles.

History

Small caps used by Johann Froben in the 1516 Novum instrumentum

Research by Margaret M. Smith concluded that the use of small caps was probably popularised by Johann Froben in the early 16th century, who used them extensively from 1516.[1] Froben may have been influenced by Aldus Manutius, who used very small capitals with printing Greek and at the start of lines of italic, copying a style common in manuscripts at the time, and sometimes used these capitals to set headings in his printing; as a result these headings were in all caps, but in capitals from a smaller font than the body text type.[1] The idea caught on in France, where small capitals were used by Simon de Colines, Robert Estienne and Claude Garamond.[1][13][14] Johannes Philippus de Lignamine used small caps in the 1470s, but apparently was not copied at the time.[1][15][13]

Small capitals are not found in all font designs, as traditionally in printing they were primarily used within the body text of books and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as sans-serif types which historically were not preferred for book printing.[16] Fonts in Use reports that Gert Wunderlich's Maxima (1970), for Typoart, was "maybe the first sans serif to feature small caps and optional oldstyle numerals across all weights."[17] (Some caps-only typefaces intended for printing stationery, for instance Copperplate Gothic and Bank Gothic, were intended to be used with smaller sizes serving as small capitals, and had no lower case as a result.[18][19])

Italic small capitals were historically rarer than roman small caps. Some digital font families, sometimes digitisations of older metal type designs, still only have small caps in roman style and do not have small caps in bold or italic styles.[20][21] This is again because small caps were normally only used in body text and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary. An isolated early appearance was in the Enschedé type foundry specimen of 1768, which featured a set cut by Joan Michaël Fleischman,[22][23] and in 1837 Thomas Adams commented that in the United States "small capitals are in general only cast to roman fonts" but that "some founders in England cast italic small capitals to most, if not the whole of their fonts."[24][a] (Bold type did not appear until the nineteenth century.) In 1956, Hugh Williamson's textbook Methods of Book Design noted that "one of the most conspicuous defects" of contemporary book faces was that they did not generally feature italic small capitals: "these would certainly be widely used if they were generally available".[25] Exceptions available at the time were Linotype's Pilgrim, Janson and their release of Monotype Garamond, and from Monotype Romulus.[25] More have appeared in the digital period, such as in Hoefler Text and FF Scala.[20][26][27]

Computer support

Fonts

The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two feature tags, smcp and c2sc.[28] A font may use the tag smcp to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag c2sc to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps. OpenType provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two feature tags, pcap and c2pc.[29] A font may use the tag pcap to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag c2pc to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps.

Desktop publishing applications, as well as web browsers, can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so.[30] LibreOffice can use the fontname:pcap=1 method.

Word processors

Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications.[31]

Most word processing applications, including Microsoft Word and Pages, do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts that include them, instead generating scaled ones. For these applications it is therefore easier to work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's EB Garamond, in open beta.[32] LibreOffice Writer started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name, a colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, EB Garamond 12:smcp=1,[33][34] and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch.[35]

Unicode

<?>
This section contains uncommon Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the intended characters.

Although small caps are allographs of their full size equivalents (and so not usually "semantically important"), the Unicode standard does define a number of "small capital" characters in the IPA extensions, Phonetic Extensions and Latin Extended-D ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters, with official names such as latin letter small capital l, are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, ʀ represents a uvular trill, and ɢ represents a voiced uvular plosive. They should not normally be used in other contexts;[b] rather, the basic character set should be used with suitable formatting controls as described in the preceding sections.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
inline ᴀ ʙ ᴄ ᴅ ᴇ ꜰ ɢ ʜ ɪ ᴊ ᴋ ʟ ᴍ ɴ ᴏ ᴘ ꞯ ʀ ꜱ ᴛ ᴜ ᴠ ᴡ – ʏ ᴢ
superscript 𐞄 𐞒 𐞖 ᶦ ᶫ ᶰ 𐞪 ᶸ 𐞲
overscript ◌ᷛ ◌ᷞ ◌ᷟ ◌ᷡ ◌ᷢ

Additionally, a few less-common Latin characters, several Greek characters, and a single Cyrillic character used in Latin-script notation (small capital Л: ᴫ), also have small capitals encoded:

Extended Latin
Ꜳ Æ (Ƀ) Ð Ǝ Ɠ ᵷ (⅁) Ɨ Ʞ Ł Ɬ (И) Œ Ɔ Ȣ (Я) ɹ (ꓤ) ꝵ Ʉ Ɯ Ʒ
inline – ᴁ ᴃ ᴆ ⱻ ʛ 𝼂 ᵻ 𝼐 ᴌ 𝼄 ᴎ ɶ ᴐ ᴕ ᴙ ᴚ ʁ ꭆ ꝶ ᵾ ꟺ ᴣ
superscript 𐞀 𐞔 ᶧ 𐞜 𐞣 ʶ
Greek[c]
Γ Δ Θ Λ Ξ Π Ρ Σ Φ Ψ Ω
inline ᴦ – – ᴧ – ᴨ ᴩ – – ᴪ ꭥ

Labels

The Unicode Consortium has a typographical convention of using small caps for its formal names for symbols, in running text. For example, the name of U+0416 Ж CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE is conventionally shown as CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE.[36]

CSS

Small caps can be specified in the web page presentation language CSS using font-variant: small-caps. For example, the HTML

<span style="font-variant: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>
<span style="font-variant: small-caps">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>

renders as

Jane Doe
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz.

Since CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser.

CSS3 can specify OpenType small caps (given the smcp feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using font-variant-caps: small-caps, which is the recommended way, or font-feature-settings: 'smcp', which is the most widely used method As of May 2014. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.

<span style="font-variant-caps: small-caps">Jane Doe</span>
<span style="font-feature-settings: 'smcp'">AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz</span>

renders as

Jane Doe
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz

As of June 2023, CSS3 can specify petite caps by using font-variant: petite-caps[37] or font-feature-settings: 'pcap'. If the font does not have petite cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Spelling and capitalisation modernised.
  2. ^ Text set using these characters suffers a number of deficiencies in comparison with text formatted using the basic character set. A number of characters have no "small capital" code points, including the standard English letter X, and the disparate applications intended for the various supported characters means they may appear differently⁠-⁠sized or -⁠styled, even within a single typeface. The use of these characters is furthermore disabling, as they are not generally intelligible to the screen readers used by blind people; nor, typically, is text set using these characters recognised by general-purpose translation tools.
  3. ^ Supported letters, plus those that cannot be substituted with Latin.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Smith, Margaret M. (1993). "The Pre-history of 'Small caps': from all caps to smaller capitals to small caps". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 22 (79–106).
  2. ^ "OpenType Layout tag registry". Microsoft. 2008-11-19. Retrieved 2014-05-15.
  3. ^ Wright, Robin (July 26, 2020). "What Does NATO Do, Anyway?". The New Yorker. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  4. ^ Sorkin, Amy (June 12, 2020). "What the W.H.O. Meant to Say About Asymptomatic People Spreading the Coronavirus". The New Yorker. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  5. ^ Detken, Anke (2018). "Kursiv Geschriebenes und Kapitälchen: Typologische Überlegungen zu Regiebemerkungen und Sprecherbezeichnungen in postdramatischen Theatertexten". Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik (in German). 48 (3): 522–523. doi:10.1007/s41244-018-0102-x. ISSN 0049-8653.
  6. ^ Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers. 2003. p. 1046. ISBN 0-8054-2836-4.
  7. ^ Jones, S. D.; Wipff, J. K.; Montgomery, P. M. (2011). Vascular Plants of Texas: A Comprehensive Checklist Including Synonymy, Bibliography, and Index. University of Texas Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-292-72962-9. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
  8. ^ Allen, J.A.; American Museum of Natural History (1892). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. American Museum of Natural History. p. 208. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
  9. ^ Bouchard, P.; Bousquet, Y.; Davies, A.E.; Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A.; Lawrence, J. F.; Lyal, C. H. C.; Newton, A. F.; Reid, C. A. M.; Schmitt, M.; Slipinski, S. A. (2011). Family-group Names in Coleoptera (Insecta). ZooKeys. Pensoft. p. 896. ISBN 978-954-642-583-6. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
  10. ^ Bourke, Chris (April 12, 2007). "User's Guide for complexity: a LATEX package, Version 0.80" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 4, 2020. Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  11. ^ The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation (20th ed.). Columbia Law Review Ass'n et al. 2015. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-692-40019-7.
  12. ^ Cooper, Byron D. (1982). "Anglo-American Legal Citation: Historical Development and Library Implications". Law Library Journal. 75 (3): 1745-. Retrieved 2024-03-19.
  13. ^ a b Carter, Matthew (1989). "Letters to the Editor". The Ampersand. 9 (3): 2.
  14. ^ Vervliet, Hendrik D. L. (2008). The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces. Leiden: Brill. pp. 36, 47, 52, 71, 75, 79, 202. ISBN 978-90-041-6982-1.
  15. ^ Carter, Matthew; Smith, Margaret M. "Letters". Bulletin of the Printing Historical Society.
  16. ^ Shaw, Paul. "The Evolution of Metro and its Reimagination as Metro Nova". Typographica. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  17. ^ "Maxima". Fonts in Use. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  18. ^ McGrew, Mac (1993). American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century (2nd ed.). Oak Knoll. pp. 22–23, 258–259. ISBN 0-938-76834-4.
  19. ^ Specimen Book and Catalogue. Jersey City, NJ: American Type Founders. 1923. pp. 334–349, 389–396. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
  20. ^ a b Heller, Steven. "Jonathan Hoefler on type design". Design Dialogues. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  21. ^ Gilbertson, Alan (21 May 2015). "The Incredible Shrinking Italic Small Caps". InDesign Secrets. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  22. ^ Enschedé, Johannes; Lane, John A. (1993). The Enschedé type specimens of 1768 and 1773: a facsimile. Stichting Museum Enschedé, the Enschedé Font Foundry, Uitgeverij De Buitenkant. p. 63. ISBN 9-070-38658-5.
  23. ^ Proef van letteren, welke gegooten worden in de nieuwe Haerlemsche Lettergietery van J. Enschedé (in Dutch). Haarlem: J. Enschedé. 1768. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
  24. ^ Adams, Thomas F. (1837). Typographia: A Brief Sketch of the Origin, Rise, and Progress of the Typographic Art: with Practical Directions for Conducting Every Department in an Office. Philadelphia. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  25. ^ a b Williamson, Hugh (1956). Methods of Book Design. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 75–104.
  26. ^ Hoefler, Jonathan. "Hoefler Text Font Features: Grand Italics". Hoefler. Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  27. ^ Majoor, Martin (2000). FontFont Focus No.1. FontShop. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  28. ^ ""Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry"". Microsoft. 2017-01-04. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
  29. ^ ""Microsoft OpenType Layout tag registry"". Microsoft. 2008-10-08. Retrieved 2014-05-15.
  30. ^ "OpenType feature support"". "Typotheque. Retrieved 2014-05-15.
  31. ^ "What's OpenType?". Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
  32. ^ Duffner, Georg. "Design of EB Garamond". Retrieved 11 August 2014.
  33. ^ "Release Notes 5.3". The Document Foundation. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  34. ^ "Opentype features now enabled? Documentation?". Ask LibreOffice. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  35. ^ "ReleaseNotes/6.2". Wiki. The Document Foundation. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
  36. ^ "Appendix A, Notational Conventions" (PDF). The Unicode Standard 15.0.0. The Unicode Consortium. 13 September 2022. p. 968.
  37. ^ ""W3C Recommendation: CSS Fonts Module Level 3"". W3.org. 2018-09-20. Retrieved 2023-06-09.

Further reading

  • Bringhurst, Robert (2004). The Elements of Typographic Style (3rd ed.). Point Roberts, WA: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 978-0-881-79205-8.
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