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Gold aureus with the legend "Imp(eratoris) Sponsiani"

Sponsianus, also known in English as Sponsian, may have been a Roman usurper during the third century. His existence is implied by a series of coins bearing his name, ostensibly part of a hoard excavated in the eighteenth century. No corresponding figure named Sponsianus is mentioned in any ancient sources, and the coins are widely believed to be the work of modern forgers. However, a study of wear marks on the coins published in November 2022 concluded that the coins were authentic, supporting Sponsian's existence as a historical figure. The study's methodology and conclusions have been criticized by a number of scholars.

Scholars who accept the historicity of Sponsianus date his activity to the Crisis of the Third Century, often locating him in the particularly unstable province of Dacia. More precise dating is a matter of controversy: some scholars have conjectured that he may have proclaimed himself emperor in the 260s, after Dacia was cut off from the rest of the Empire, or in the early 270s after it was formally abandoned by Aurelian. Others contend he may have been active earlier, during the reign of Philip the Arab or his son, Philip II.

Discussion

The sole evidence for the existence of Sponsianus is his name on a few double-aurei reportedly uncovered in a coin-hoard in Transylvania in 1713, and subsequently dispersed among several collections.^{[note 1]} One was kept in the Hunterian Museum at Glasgow University, alongside three coins depicting other figures also claimed to have been from the hoard.^[2]^[3] Another entered the bequest of Baron Samuel von Brukenthal, a Habsburg governor of Transylvania.^[2]

The aurei are highly unusual for the period. Firstly, the obverse of the coin features unusual lettering and gives Sponsianus' name in the genitive case (instead of the usual nominative). Second, the reverse of the coin is a copy of a Republican denarius struck in 135 BC with an apparently corrupted inscription.^[1] The coins are also unusually heavy,^{[note 2]} and appear to have been cast, rather than produced using the more usual stamping process.^[4]

The traditional consensus among numismatists has been to regard the coins as modern forgeries. As early as 1828, Eckhel noted the strangeness of the coins and concluded against the historicity of Sponsianus.^[5] In 1868, the French numismatist Henri Cohen dismissed them as "very poor quality modern forgeries,"^[2]^[6] and Rudolf Münsterberg's [de] 1923 analysis, concluding that the coins were modern forgeries, is considered definitive by many numismatists.^[7]^[8]^[9] More recently, the coins were described as "strange and barbaric" in Roman Imperial Coinage,^[10] a British catalogue of Roman Imperial currency, and some numismatists have objected to their inclusion in the catalogue altogether.^[8]^[9] Other scholars concur with the RIC, and classify the coins as third-century imitations of Roman coinage,^[11]^[10] while still others contend that the coins can be ascribed to a historical usurper Sponsianus.^[12] In general, ancient historians have been more willing to accept the historicity of Sponsianus and the authenticity of the coins.^[1]

In 2022, a group of scientists led by Paul Pearson of University College London argued that scratch marks on one coin bearing Sponsianus' name and image, visible under an electron microscope, proved that the coin circulated in antiquity.^[2]^[3] The group also conducted a chemical analysis, concluding the earth deposits found in the coin's recesses showed that the coins had been buried in soil for hundreds of years.^[2]^[13] The study attracted significant scholarly and media attention, and led the Brukenthal Museum in Sibiu to reclassify another coin bearing Sponsianus' image as genuine.^[2]

In the aftermath of Pearson's analysis, several researchers have criticized the study and its conclusions. In an article for the Times Literary Supplement, Mary Beard suggests that the unusual features of the Sponsianus coin are better explained by its being an eighteenth-century forgery.^[14] Richard Abdy, the curator of the collection of Roman coins at the British Museum, condemned the study, stating "they've gone full fantasy."^[15] In the Journal Antigone, Alfred Deahl argued that the coins are forgeries, drawing attention to the unusual features of the coins as well as the oddness of the other coins purportedly found in the same hoard.^[16]^{[note 3]} These doubts are echoed by Aleksander Bursche and Kyrylo Myzgin, who add that the very early finding and low gold content may count against the coins' authenticity.^[17] Alice Sharpless from the American Numismatic Society summarized criticism of the Pearson study by writing "the evidence of wear and of surface deposits cannot be shown conclusively not to have occurred in the modern period... Unless further study can provide more certain answers, it seems that these coins should continue to be regarded as modern forgeries."^[17]

Pearson's study has attracted significant attention from Romanian numismatists and classicists. Emanuel Petac, President of the Romanian Numismatic Society, stated that the coin "has nothing to do with the Roman world.^[18] Petac notes that the legend irregularly excludes his praenomen and cognomen, or whose son or grandson he is.^{[note 4]}^[19] Another Romanian academic, Florian-Matei Popescu, highlighted the lack of written attestations of Sponsianus or his name—though the name Sponsianus is attested in the Roman world in inscriptions, these are very rare.^[20] Popescu argues that if the coins are real, which he deems unlikely, they date to the reign of Philip the Arab, who opened a mint in Dacia making low-value bronzes to pay the army.^[18]

The name Sponsianus

The name Sponsianus is an authentic, but exceedingly rare, Roman name, derived from the Latin word spondere, to solemnly promise.^[21] Pearson notes only one instance, from a funerary inscription naming an obscure person called Nicodemus Sponsianus, dating from the early first century.^[22] This inscription was not published until 1726, several years after the supposed discovery of Sponsian's coins, and Pearson regards this as an argument for their authenticity: a forger would not have known of the name. Two other instances appear in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a catalogue of known Latin inscriptions, all dating from the same period,^[23] while a further two inscriptions give the abbreviated form Sposianus;^[24] all five inscriptions are from Rome. One of the latter was published by Jan Gruter well before the first known appearance of the coins,^[25] and other examples are known besides these, so a forger might still have been aware of or guessed at the existence of such a name.^[26]

Theories

Scholars who accept the historicity of Sponsianus have proposed several possibilities for when and where Sponsianus would have been active. One explanation, based upon the other coins found with the aurei, would date Sponsian's activity to the 240s,^[27] during the rule of Gordian III (AD 238–244) or Philip the Arab (AD 244–249).^[28] Based upon the location of his aurei, some scholars posit that he may have staged a revolt in Pannonia.^[29] Ilkka Syvänne places the revolt early in Philip's reign, and identifies Sponsianus with the obscure Severus Hostilianus mentioned in later Byzantine histories (though he notes the evidence is circumstantial).^[30]

Another explanation is that he was a military commander who crowned himself as emperor when Dacia was cut off from the rest of the empire around 260. With an ongoing pandemic and civil war, and the empire being fragmented at the time, Sponsianus may have assumed supreme command to protect the military and civilian population of Dacia until order was restored. The Romans eventually evacuated Dacia between 271 and 275.^[2]^[4] According to Jesper Ericsson:

Our interpretation is that he was in charge to maintain control of the military and of the civilian population because they were surrounded and completely cut off. In order to create a functioning economy in the province they decided to mint their own coins.^[2]

The Roman Empire in this period was highly unstable; many peripheral areas were left to fend for themselves. Dacia in particular was abandoned in the 270s by Aurelian after it was deemed too difficult to defend. Sponsianus may have found himself responsible for thousands of people, without support from the central regime of the empire, and surrounded by hostile tribes; in this context, Sponsianus taking the title of emperor has been characterized as an attempt to maintain order.^[31] He would have had access to a military force consisting of two legions there and their associated auxiliary personnel, totalling tens of thousands of soldiers.^[32] No other evidence has been found of Sponsianus' rule, and if he did exist, this would seem to indicate that Sponsianus was either uninterested or unsuccessful in expanding his territory.^[31]

Notes

^ The exact provenance of the coins is a subject of controversy among scholars; if the coins are inauthentic, no such hoard could have existed.^[1] (Pearson et al. 2022) catalogues the provenances of all the coins originally said to have been found in the hoard, as well as the provenances of other coins whose distinctive features match those of the coins ascribed to the hoard. There appear to have been seven coins depicting Sponsianus, including a now-lost silver piece. Only four are now extant.
^ The coins bearing Sponsianus' name and image weigh 10.02 grams on average; for comparison those of Philip said to have been found in the same hoard average 4.30 grams.
^ Carl Gustav Heraeus [de], the numismatist who originally received many of the coins purportedly from the Transylvanian hoard, classified a piece bearing the image of Gordian III as a forgery immediately upon receiving the collection in March 1713.^[7]^[3]^[1] Deahl also notes that eighteenth-century forgers were sophisticated enough to add wear marks to their coins, which they created by placing them in bags with other coins, and handling them to simulate normal usage.
^ Son: filius, f, fil; grandson: nepos, n, nep.^[19]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Heiko Marenda (2023). "4 Sponsianus". Verloren Herrscher: Usurpatoren unter den Soldatenkaisern (235–285) (in German). wbg Academic. pp. 50–54. ISBN 9783534407491.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Ghosh, Pallab (2022-11-24). "Gold coin proves 'fake' Roman emperor was real". BBC News. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
^ ^a ^b ^c Pearson, Paul N.; Botticelli, Michela; Ericsson, Jesper; Olender, Jacek; Spruženiece, Liene (2022-11-23). "Authenticating coins of the 'Roman emperor' Sponsian". PLOS One. 17 (11): e0274285. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1774285P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274285. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9683583. PMID 36417346.
^ ^a ^b Pearson, Paul N. (2022). The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-39909-097-1.
^ Joseph Hilarius Eckhel (1828). "Sponsianus". Doctrina Numorum Veterum (in Latin). Vol. VII (2 ed.). p. 340–341.
^ Cohen, Henri (1868). Description historique des Monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, communément appelées Médailles impériales. Vol. 7 supplément. Rollin et Feuardent. p. 254.
^ ^a ^b "Ein siebenbürgischer Goldmünzenfund aus dem Jahre 1713". Blätter für Münzfreunde [de] (in German). 58: 425–428. 1923.
^ ^a ^b Aleksander Bursche (2000). "Roman gold medallions in Barbaricum. Symbols of power and prestige of Germanic élite in Late Antiquity". XII. Internationaler Numismatischer Kongress Berlin 1997: Akten — Proceedings — Actes. Vol. II. Berlin: Bernd Kluge und Bernhard Weisser. p. 758.
^ ^a ^b Roger Bland (1992). "Review of "Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284 [...]"". The Numismatic Chronicle. 152. Royal Numismatic Society: 210–211.
^ ^a ^b Vagi, David L. (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 331. ISBN 9781579583163.
^ William Ramsay (1902). William Smith (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. III. London. p. 696.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Sayles, Wayne G. (2007). Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World. KP. p. 121. ISBN 9780896894785.
^ Pearson, Paul N. (2022). The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-39909-097-1.
^ Beard, Mary (2022). "When is a Roman emperor not a Roman emperor?". Times Literary Supplement.
^ Devlin, Hannah (2022-11-23). "Coins study suggests 'fake emperor' was real, say scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 2022-11-25.
^ Deahl, Alfred (2022-11-27). "Sponsian: another lost emperor". Antigone Journal.
^ ^a ^b Sharpless, Alice (2022-12-06). "Is Sponsian real? Further Considerations". American Numismatic Society. New York City.
^ ^a ^b Nicolae, Adrian (2022-11-25). "Monedele cu chipul împăratului roman din Dacia, Sponsianus, un fals ridicol din toate punctele de vedere - opinia specialiștilor" [Coins with the face of the Roman emperor of Dacia, Sponsianus are ridiculously fake from all points of view - opinion of experts]. HotNews (in Romanian).
^ ^a ^b Vig, Emese (2022-11-26). "Román szakértők a Sponsianus-érméről: az aranypénz hamisítvány, a császár meg nem létezett" [Romanian experts about the Sponsianus coin: the gold coin is fake and the emperor didn't exist]. Transtelex (in Hungarian).
^ CIL VI, 3959 (as originally drawn by Piranesi)
^ Marcus Terentius Varro, De Lingua Latina (On the Latin Language), vi. 70 ff.; Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1879).
^ CIL VI, 3959.
^ CIL VI, 4188, CIL VI, 5263.
^ CIL VI, 8901, CIL VI, 26703.
^ Jan Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603), p. 581.
^ Hector Williams (1981). Kenchreai: Eastern Port of Corinth: Results of Investigations by the University of Chicago and Indiana University for The American School of Classics Studies at Athens. Vol. V (The Lamps). Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 42. ISBN 9004061983.
^ Hartmann, Felix (1982). Herrscherwechsel und Reichskrise : Untersuchungen zu den Ursachen und Konsequenzen der Herrscherwechsel im Imperium Romanum der Soldatenkaiserzeit (3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.). P. Lang. p. 121. ISBN 978-3820461954.
^ Mennen, Inge (2011). Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Brill. p. A1. ISBN 9789004203594.
^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. Yale University Press. p. 427. ISBN 9780300155600.
^ Syvänne, Ilkka (2021). Gordian III and Philip the Arab: The Roman Empire at a Crossroads. Great Britain. ISBN 9781526786753.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ ^a ^b Knapton, Sarah (2022-11-23). "Long lost Roman emperor revealed as coins give up their secret". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
^ Georgiou, Aristos (2022-12-01). "Lost Roman Emperor Long Thought to Be Fake Was Real Leader in Time of Chaos". Newsweek.

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 '''Sponsianus''', also known in English as '''Sponsian''', may have been a [[Roman usurper]] during the third century. His existence is implied by a series of coins bearing his name, ostensibly part of a hoard excavated in the eighteenth century. No corresponding figure named Sponsianus is mentioned in any ancient sources, and the coins are widely believed to be the work of modern forgers. However, a study of wear marks on the coins published in November 2022 concluded that the coins were authentic, supporting Sponsian's existence as a historical figure. The study's methodology and conclusions have been criticized by a number of scholars.
-If there had been a historical Sponsianus, he might have been active during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], most likely in the [[Roman Dacia|province of Dacia]]. He could have proclaimed himself [[Roman emperor|emperor]] in the 260s, after Dacia was cut off from the rest of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] during the reign of [[Gallienus]]. Another possibility is that he was active earlier, during the reign of [[Philip the Arab]] or his son, [[Philip II (Roman emperor)|Philip II]].
+Scholars who accept the [[historicity]] of Sponsianus date his activity to the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], often locating him in the particularly unstable [[Roman Dacia|province of Dacia]]. More precise dating is a matter of controversy: some scholars have conjectured that he may have proclaimed himself [[Roman emperor|emperor]] in the 260s, after Dacia was cut off from the rest of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]], or in the early 270s after it was formally abandoned by [[Aurelian]]. Others contend he may have been active earlier, during the reign of [[Philip the Arab]] or his son, [[Philip II (Roman emperor)|Philip II]].
 ==Discussion==
-The sole evidence for the existence of Sponsianus is his name on a few [[Aureus|double-aurei]] and a silver coin reportedly uncovered in a [[Hoard|coin-hoard]] in [[Transylvania]] in 1713, and subsequently dispersed among several collections.{{NoteTag|(Pearson et al. 2022) catalogues the provenance of the coins found in the hoard: there appear to have been seven coins depicting Sponsianus, but only four are now extant; the study included only a single coin depicting Sponsianus alongside others found in the same hoard.}} One was kept in the [[Hunterian Museum]] at [[Glasgow University]], which also held three other coins from the original hoard.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab |author-link=Pallab Ghosh |date=24 November 2022 |title=Gold coin proves 'fake' Roman emperor was real |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-63636641 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |last2=Botticelli |first2=Michela |last3=Ericsson |first3=Jesper |last4=Olender |first4=Jacek |last5=Spruženiece |first5=Liene |date=23 November 2022 |title=Authenticating coins of the 'Roman emperor' Sponsian |journal=[[PLOS One]] |language=en |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=e0274285 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0274285 |pmid=36417346 |pmc=9683583 |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1774285P }}</ref> Another entered the bequest of Baron [[Samuel von Brukenthal]], a Habsburg [[governor of Transylvania]].<ref name=":0" /> The hoard included other coins bearing the names of [[Philip the Arab]] and [[Gordian III]], among others.
+The sole evidence for the existence of Sponsianus is his name on a few [[Aureus|double-aurei]] reportedly uncovered in a [[Hoard|coin-hoard]] in [[Transylvania]] in 1713, and subsequently dispersed among several collections.{{NoteTag|The exact provenance of the coins is a subject of controversy among scholars; if the coins are inauthentic, no such hoard could have existed.<ref name="Userpator">{{cite book|title=Verloren Herrscher: Usurpatoren unter den Soldatenkaisern (235–285)|author=Heiko Marenda|publisher=wbg Academic|year=2023|ISBN=9783534407491|language=German|chapter=4 Sponsianus|pages=50–54}}</ref> (Pearson et al. 2022) catalogues the provenances of all the coins originally said to have been found in the hoard, as well as the provenances of other coins whose distinctive features match those of the coins ascribed to the hoard. There appear to have been seven coins depicting Sponsianus, including a now-lost silver piece. Only four are now extant.}} One was kept in the [[Hunterian Museum]] at [[Glasgow University]], alongside three coins depicting other figures also claimed to have been from the hoard.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab |author-link=Pallab Ghosh |date=24 November 2022 |title=Gold coin proves 'fake' Roman emperor was real |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-63636641 |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |last2=Botticelli |first2=Michela |last3=Ericsson |first3=Jesper |last4=Olender |first4=Jacek |last5=Spruženiece |first5=Liene |date=23 November 2022 |title=Authenticating coins of the 'Roman emperor' Sponsian |journal=[[PLOS One]] |language=en |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=e0274285 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0274285 |pmid=36417346 |pmc=9683583 |issn=1932-6203 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1774285P }}</ref> Another entered the bequest of Baron [[Samuel von Brukenthal]], a Habsburg [[governor of Transylvania]].<ref name=":0" />
-The traditional opinion of numismatists has been to regard the coins as non-authentic: In 1868, the French numismatist [[Henry Cohen (numismatist)|Henri Cohen]] dismissed them as "very poor quality modern forgeries".<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Henri |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_adxSECl4cdoC |title=Description historique des Monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, communément appelées Médailles impériales |date=1868 |volume=7 supplément |page=254 |publisher=Rollin et Feuardent |author-link=Henri Cohen (composer)}}</ref> The problems with the aurei are twofold: firstly, the obverse of the coin is "barbaric and strange" as described by ''[[Roman Imperial Coinage]]'', a British catalogue of [[Roman Imperial currency]], while the reverse of the coin is a copy of a Republican denarius struck in 135 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vagi |first1=David L. |title=Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480 |date=2000 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |isbn=9781579583163 |page=331}}</ref> The coins are also unusually heavy,{{NoteTag|The coins bearing Sponsianus' name and image weigh 10.02 grams on average; for comparison those of Philip found in the same hoard average 4.30 grams.}} and appear to have been [[casting|cast]], rather than produced using the more usual [[Stamping (metalworking)|stamping process]], while the inscriptions do not follow the conventions of the time.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |title=The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260 |date=2022 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword]] |location=Barnsley, England |isbn=978-1-39909-097-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rylsEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> However, according to numismatist [[Wayne G. Sayles|Wayne Sayles]], as the [[Roman usurper|usurper]]s and [[Roman emperor|emperor]]s of the time were often ephemeral, the lack of further coins and the unusual qualities of those that are extant should not be seen as evidence that Sponsianus did not actually exist.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sayles |first1=Wayne G. |title=Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World |date=2007 |publisher=KP |isbn=9780896894785 |page=121 |author-link=Wayne G. Sayles}}</ref>
+The aurei are highly unusual for the period. Firstly, the obverse of the coin features unusual lettering and gives Sponsianus' name in the [[genitive case]] (instead of the usual [[nominative case|nominative]]). Second, the reverse of the coin is a copy of a Republican denarius struck in 135 BC with an apparently corrupted inscription.<ref name="Userpator"/> The coins are also unusually heavy,{{NoteTag|The coins bearing Sponsianus' name and image weigh 10.02 grams on average; for comparison those of Philip said to have been found in the same hoard average 4.30 grams.}} and appear to have been [[casting|cast]], rather than produced using the more usual [[Stamping (metalworking)|stamping process]].<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |title=The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260 |date=2022 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword]] |location=Barnsley, England |isbn=978-1-39909-097-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rylsEAAAQBAJ}}</ref>
+The traditional consensus among numismatists has been to regard the coins as modern forgeries. As early as 1828, [[Joseph Hilarius Eckhel|Eckhel]] noted the strangeness of the coins and concluded against the historicity of Sponsianus.<ref>{{cite book|language=Latin|title=Doctrina Numorum Veterum|author=[[Joseph Hilarius Eckhel]]|volume=VII|edition=2|year=1828|chapter=Sponsianus|page=340–341|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Doctrina_numorum_veterum_etc/AW4eYPquc2MC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA340&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> In 1868, the French numismatist [[Henry Cohen (numismatist)|Henri Cohen]] dismissed them as "very poor quality modern forgeries,"<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Henri |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_adxSECl4cdoC |title=Description historique des Monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain, communément appelées Médailles impériales |date=1868 |volume=7 supplément |page=254 |publisher=Rollin et Feuardent |author-link=Henri Cohen (composer)}}</ref> and {{ill|Rudolf Münsterberg|lt=Rudolf Münsterberg's|de}} 1923 analysis, concluding that the coins were modern forgeries, is considered definitive by many numismatists.<ref name="y1923">{{cite journal|journal={{ill|Blätter für Münzfreunde|de}}|language=German| volume=58|year=1923|pages=425–428|title=Ein siebenbürgischer Goldmünzenfund aus dem Jahre 1713}}</ref><ref name="RICcrit">{{cite book|title=XII. Internationaler Numismatischer Kongress Berlin 1997: Akten — Proceedings — Actes|volume=II|publisher=Bernd Kluge und Bernhard Weisser|location=Berlin|year=2000|chapter=Roman gold medallions in Barbaricum. Symbols of power and prestige of Germanic élite in Late Antiquity|author=Aleksander Bursche|page=758}}</ref><ref name="RITcrit" /> More recently, the coins were described as "strange and barbaric" in ''[[Roman Imperial Coinage]]'',<ref name="CnH" /> a British catalogue of [[Roman Imperial currency]], and some numismatists have objected to their inclusion in the catalogue altogether.<ref name="RICcrit"/><ref name="RITcrit">{{cite journal| journal=The Numismatic Chronicle|year=1992|volume=152|pages=210–211|publisher=Royal Numismatic Society|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42667859|title=Review of "Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284 [...]"|author=Roger Bland}}</ref> Other scholars concur with the ''RIC'', and classify the coins as third-century imitations of Roman coinage,<ref>{{cite book| title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology| volume=III|editor=William Smith| location=London| year=1902| author=William Ramsay|page=696}}</ref><ref name="CnH">{{cite book |last1=Vagi |first1=David L. |title=Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, c. 82 B.C.- A.D. 480 |date=2000 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |isbn=9781579583163 |page=331}}</ref> while still others contend that the coins can be ascribed to a historical usurper Sponsianus.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sayles |first1=Wayne G. |title=Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World |date=2007 |publisher=KP |isbn=9780896894785 |page=121 |author-link=Wayne G. Sayles}}</ref> In general, [[ancient history|ancient historians]] have been more willing to accept the historicity of Sponsianus and the authenticity of the coins.<ref name="Userpator"/>
-After further study in 2022, a group of scientists argued that scratch marks on one coin bearing Sponsianus' name and image, visible under an [[electron microscope]], proved that it circulated in antiquity.<ref name=":0" /> Paul Pearson of [[University College London]] led the research and said that he was astonished by the confirmation that the coin had been used.<ref name=":1" /> Jesper Ericsson stated that a chemical analysis of the earth deposits found in the coin's recesses showed that the coins had been buried in soil for hundreds of years.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rylsEAAAQBAJ |title=The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260 |date=2022 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword]] |isbn=978-1-39909-097-1 |location=Barnsley, England |page=227}}</ref> On the basis of the above analysis, another coin bearing Sponsianus' name, in the [[Brukenthal Museum]] in [[Sibiu]] in Transylvania, has also been reclassified as genuine.<ref name=":0" />
+In 2022, a group of scientists led by Paul Pearson of [[University College London]] argued that scratch marks on one coin bearing Sponsianus' name and image, visible under an [[electron microscope]], proved that the coin circulated in antiquity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The group also conducted a chemical analysis, concluding the earth deposits found in the coin's recesses showed that the coins had been buried in soil for hundreds of years.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rylsEAAAQBAJ |title=The Roman Empire in crisis, 248-260 |date=2022 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword]] |isbn=978-1-39909-097-1 |location=Barnsley, England |page=227}}</ref> The study attracted significant scholarly and media attention, and led the [[Brukenthal Museum]] in [[Sibiu]] to reclassify another coin bearing Sponsianus' image as genuine.<ref name=":0" />
-In the aftermath of Pearson's analysis, several researchers have criticized the study and its conclusions. In an article for the ''[[The Times Literary Supplement|Times Literary Supplement]]'', [[Mary Beard (classicist)|Mary Beard]] suggests that the unusual features of the Sponsianus coin are better explained by its being an eighteenth-century forgery.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |date=2022 |title=When is a Roman emperor not a Roman emperor? |work=[[Times Literary Supplement]] |url=https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/when-is-a-roman-emperor-not-an-emperor-sponsian-blog-post-mary-beard/ }}</ref> Richard Abdy,<!--Q42559466--> the curator of the collection of Roman coins at the [[British Museum]], condemned the study, stating "they've gone full fantasy."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Devlin |date=23 November 2022 |title=Coins study suggests 'fake emperor' was real, say scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/nov/23/coins-study-suggests-fake-emperor-sponsian-was-real-say-scientists |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref> In the Journal ''Antigone'', Alfred Deahl also argues that the coins are forgeries: he cites the unusual weight of the Sponsianus coins, the poor lettering and use of the [[genitive case|genitive]] instead of the usual [[nominative case|nominative]] case, the highly irregular casting process used to produce them, the imitation of a republican reverse, and the oddness of the other coins purportedly found in the same hoard.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Deahl |first1=Alfred |title=Sponsian: another lost emperor |work=Antigone Journal |url=https://antigonejournal.com/2022/11/sponsian-fake-emperor/ |date=27 November 2022}}</ref>{{NoteTag|Deahl also notes that eighteenth-century forgers were sophisticated enough to add wear marks to their coins, which they created by placing them in bags with other coins, and handling them to simulate normal usage.}} These doubts are echoed by Aleksander Bursche and Kyrylo Myzgin, who add that the very early finding and low [[gold]] content may count against the coins' authenticity.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |last1=Sharpless |first1=Alice |date=6 December 2022 |title=Is Sponsian real? Further Considerations |url=https://numismatics.org/pocketchange/sponsian/ |work=American Numismatic Society |location=[[New York City]]}}</ref> Alice Sharpless from the [[American Numismatic Society]] summarized criticism of the Pearson study by writing "the evidence of wear and of surface deposits cannot be shown conclusively not to have occurred in the modern period... Unless further study can provide more certain answers, it seems that these coins should continue to be regarded as modern forgeries."<ref name=":2" />
+In the aftermath of Pearson's analysis, several researchers have criticized the study and its conclusions. In an article for the ''[[The Times Literary Supplement|Times Literary Supplement]]'', [[Mary Beard (classicist)|Mary Beard]] suggests that the unusual features of the Sponsianus coin are better explained by its being an eighteenth-century forgery.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |date=2022 |title=When is a Roman emperor not a Roman emperor? |work=[[Times Literary Supplement]] |url=https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/when-is-a-roman-emperor-not-an-emperor-sponsian-blog-post-mary-beard/ }}</ref> Richard Abdy,<!--Q42559466--> the curator of the collection of Roman coins at the [[British Museum]], condemned the study, stating "they've gone full fantasy."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Devlin |date=23 November 2022 |title=Coins study suggests 'fake emperor' was real, say scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/nov/23/coins-study-suggests-fake-emperor-sponsian-was-real-say-scientists |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref> In the Journal ''Antigone'', Alfred Deahl argued that the coins are forgeries, drawing attention to the unusual features of the coins as well as the oddness of the other coins purportedly found in the same hoard.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Deahl |first1=Alfred |title=Sponsian: another lost emperor |work=Antigone Journal |url=https://antigonejournal.com/2022/11/sponsian-fake-emperor/ |date=27 November 2022}}</ref>{{NoteTag|{{ill|Carl Gustav Heraeus|de}}, the numismatist who originally received many of the coins purportedly from the Transylvanian hoard, classified a piece bearing the image of Gordian III as a forgery immediately upon receiving the collection in March 1713.<ref name="y1923"/><ref name=":1"/><ref name="Userpator"/> Deahl also notes that eighteenth-century forgers were sophisticated enough to add wear marks to their coins, which they created by placing them in bags with other coins, and handling them to simulate normal usage.}} These doubts are echoed by Aleksander Bursche and Kyrylo Myzgin, who add that the very early finding and low [[gold]] content may count against the coins' authenticity.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |last1=Sharpless |first1=Alice |date=6 December 2022 |title=Is Sponsian real? Further Considerations |url=https://numismatics.org/pocketchange/sponsian/ |work=American Numismatic Society |location=[[New York City]]}}</ref> Alice Sharpless from the [[American Numismatic Society]] summarized criticism of the Pearson study by writing "the evidence of wear and of surface deposits cannot be shown conclusively not to have occurred in the modern period... Unless further study can provide more certain answers, it seems that these coins should continue to be regarded as modern forgeries."<ref name=":2" />
-Pearson's study has also attracted significant attention from Romanian numismatists and classicists. Emanuel Petac, President of the Romanian Numismatic Society, stated that the coin "has nothing to do with the Roman world." On the basis of the design, which he characterizes as rudimentary and bizarre, and the inscription, he concludes that the coin could not have been minted by an emperor.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |last1=Nicolae |first1=Adrian |title=Monedele cu chipul împăratului roman din Dacia, Sponsianus, un fals ridicol din toate punctele de vedere - opinia specialiștilor |language=ro |trans-title=Coins with the face of the Roman emperor of Dacia, Sponsianus are ridiculously fake from all points of view - opinion of experts |work=[[HotNews]] |url=https://science.hotnews.ro/stiri-interviuri-25926089-monedele-chipul-imparatului-roman-din-dacia-sponsianus-fals-ridicol-din-toate-punctele-vedere.htm |date=25 November 2022}}</ref> Petac notes that the legend irregularly excludes his [[praenomen]] and [[cognomen]], or whose son or grandson he is.{{NoteTag|Son: ''filius'', {{smallcaps|f, fil}}; grandson: ''nepos'', {{smallcaps|n, nep}}.<ref name=":4" />}}<ref name=":4">{{cite news |last1=Vig |first1=Emese |title=Román szakértők a Sponsianus-érméről: az aranypénz hamisítvány, a császár meg nem létezett |language=hu |trans-title=Romanian experts about the Sponsianus coin: the gold coin is fake and the emperor didn't exist |work=Trans[[Telex.hu|telex]] |url=https://transtelex.ro/kultura/2022/11/26/roman-szakertok-a-sponsianus-ermerol-az-aranypenz-hamisitvany-a-csaszar-meg-nem-letezett |date=26 November 2022}}</ref> Another Romanian academic, Florian-Matei Popescu, highlighted the lack of written attestations of Sponsianus or his name—though the name Sponsianus is attested in the Roman world in inscriptions,<ref>{{CIL|6|3959}} ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CIL_VI_3959_(Le_antichit%C3%A0_Romane,_Piranesi).jpg as originally drawn by Piranesi])</ref> these are very rare. Popescu argues that if the coins are real, which he deems unlikely, they date to the reign of [[Philip the Arab]], who opened a mint in Dacia making low-value bronzes to pay the army.<ref name=":3" />
+Pearson's study has attracted significant attention from Romanian numismatists and classicists. Emanuel Petac, President of the Romanian Numismatic Society, stated that the coin "has nothing to do with the Roman world.<ref name=":3">{{cite news |last1=Nicolae |first1=Adrian |title=Monedele cu chipul împăratului roman din Dacia, Sponsianus, un fals ridicol din toate punctele de vedere - opinia specialiștilor |language=ro |trans-title=Coins with the face of the Roman emperor of Dacia, Sponsianus are ridiculously fake from all points of view - opinion of experts |work=[[HotNews]] |url=https://science.hotnews.ro/stiri-interviuri-25926089-monedele-chipul-imparatului-roman-din-dacia-sponsianus-fals-ridicol-din-toate-punctele-vedere.htm |date=25 November 2022}}</ref> Petac notes that the legend irregularly excludes his [[praenomen]] and [[cognomen]], or whose son or grandson he is.{{NoteTag|Son: ''filius'', {{smallcaps|f, fil}}; grandson: ''nepos'', {{smallcaps|n, nep}}.<ref name=":4" />}}<ref name=":4">{{cite news |last1=Vig |first1=Emese |title=Román szakértők a Sponsianus-érméről: az aranypénz hamisítvány, a császár meg nem létezett |language=hu |trans-title=Romanian experts about the Sponsianus coin: the gold coin is fake and the emperor didn't exist |work=Trans[[Telex.hu|telex]] |url=https://transtelex.ro/kultura/2022/11/26/roman-szakertok-a-sponsianus-ermerol-az-aranypenz-hamisitvany-a-csaszar-meg-nem-letezett |date=26 November 2022}}</ref> Another Romanian academic, Florian-Matei Popescu, highlighted the lack of written attestations of Sponsianus or his name—though the name Sponsianus is attested in the Roman world in inscriptions, these are very rare.<ref>{{CIL|6|3959}} ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CIL_VI_3959_(Le_antichit%C3%A0_Romane,_Piranesi).jpg as originally drawn by Piranesi])</ref> Popescu argues that if the coins are real, which he deems unlikely, they date to the reign of [[Philip the Arab]], who opened a mint in Dacia making low-value bronzes to pay the army.<ref name=":3" />
 ==The name Sponsianus==
-The name ''Sponsianus'' is an authentic, but exceedingly rare, Roman name, derived from the Latin word ''spondere'', to solemnly promise.<ref>[[Marcus Terentius Varro]], ''De Lingua Latina'' (On the Latin Language), vi. 70 ''ff''.; [[Charlton T. Lewis]] and Charles Short, ''[[A Latin Dictionary]]'', Clarendon Press, Oxford (1879).</ref>  Pearson notes only one instance, from a funerary inscription naming an obscure person called Nicodemus Sponsianus, dating from the early first century.<ref>{{CIL|6|3959}}.</ref> This inscription was not published until 1726, several years after the supposed discovery of Sponsian's coins, and Pearson regards this as an argument for their authenticity: a forger would not have known of the name.  Two other instances appear in the ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum]]'', a catalogue of known Latin inscriptions, all dating from the same period,<ref>{{CIL|6|4188}}, {{CIL|6|5263}}.</ref> while a further two inscriptions give the abbreviated form ''Sposianus'';<ref>{{CIL|6|8901}}, {{CIL|6|26703}}.</ref> all five inscriptions are from Rome.  One of the latter was published by [[Jan Gruter]] well before the first known appearance of the coins,<ref>[[Jan Gruter]], ''Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani'' (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603), p. 581.</ref> and other examples are known besides these, so a forger might still have been aware of or guessed at the existence of such a name.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kenchreai: Eastern Port of Corinth: Results of Investigations by the University of Chicago and Indiana University for The American School of Classics Studies at Athens|volume=V (The Lamps)|author=Hector Williams|publisher={{w|Brill Publishers|E. J. Brill}}|location=Leiden|year=1981|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|page=42|isbn=9004061983}}</ref>
+The name ''Sponsianus'' is an authentic, but exceedingly rare, Roman name, derived from the Latin word ''spondere'', to solemnly promise.<ref>[[Marcus Terentius Varro]], ''De Lingua Latina'' (On the Latin Language), vi. 70 ''ff''.; [[Charlton T. Lewis]] and Charles Short, ''[[A Latin Dictionary]]'', Clarendon Press, Oxford (1879).</ref> Pearson notes only one instance, from a funerary inscription naming an obscure person called Nicodemus Sponsianus, dating from the early first century.<ref>{{CIL|6|3959}}.</ref> This inscription was not published until 1726, several years after the supposed discovery of Sponsian's coins, and Pearson regards this as an argument for their authenticity: a forger would not have known of the name. Two other instances appear in the ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum]]'', a catalogue of known Latin inscriptions, all dating from the same period,<ref>{{CIL|6|4188}}, {{CIL|6|5263}}.</ref> while a further two inscriptions give the abbreviated form ''Sposianus'';<ref>{{CIL|6|8901}}, {{CIL|6|26703}}.</ref> all five inscriptions are from Rome. One of the latter was published by [[Jan Gruter]] well before the first known appearance of the coins,<ref>[[Jan Gruter]], ''Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani'' (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603), p. 581.</ref> and other examples are known besides these, so a forger might still have been aware of or guessed at the existence of such a name.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kenchreai: Eastern Port of Corinth: Results of Investigations by the University of Chicago and Indiana University for The American School of Classics Studies at Athens|volume=V (The Lamps)|author=Hector Williams|publisher={{w|Brill Publishers|E. J. Brill}}|location=Leiden|year=1981|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|page=42|isbn=9004061983}}</ref>
 ==Theories==
-Scholars have proposed several possibilities for when and where Sponsianus would have been active. One explanation, based upon the other coins found with the aurei, would date Sponsian's activity to the 240s,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Felix |url=https://archive.org/details/herrscherwechsel0000hart |title=Herrscherwechsel und Reichskrise : Untersuchungen zu den Ursachen und Konsequenzen der Herrscherwechsel im Imperium Romanum der Soldatenkaiserzeit (3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) |date=1982 |publisher=P. Lang |isbn=978-3820461954 |page=121 |url-access=registration}}</ref> during the rule of [[Gordian III]] (AD 238–244) or [[Philip the Arab]] (AD 244–249).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mennen |first1=Inge |title=Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004203594 |page=A1}}</ref> Based upon the location of his aurei, some scholars posit that he may have staged a revolt in [[Pannonia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldsworthy |first1=Adrian |url=https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/426/mode/2up |title=How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower |date=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300155600 |page=427 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy |url-access=registration}}</ref> Ilkka Syvänne places the revolt early in Philip's reign, and identifies Sponsianus with the obscure Severus Hostilianus mentioned in later [[Byzantine]] histories (though he notes the evidence is circumstantial).<ref>{{cite book |last=Syvänne |first=Ilkka |title=Gordian III and Philip the Arab: The Roman Empire at a Crossroads |location=Great Britain |year=2021 |isbn=9781526786753 |url=https://archive.org/details/odarci-vol-2/Ilkka%20Syv%C3%A4nne%20-%20Gordian%20III%20and%20Philip%20the%20Arab.%20The%20Roman%20Empire%20at%20a%20Crossroads/page/n3/mode/2up}}</ref>
+Scholars who accept the historicity of Sponsianus have proposed several possibilities for when and where Sponsianus would have been active. One explanation, based upon the other coins found with the aurei, would date Sponsian's activity to the 240s,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Felix |url=https://archive.org/details/herrscherwechsel0000hart |title=Herrscherwechsel und Reichskrise : Untersuchungen zu den Ursachen und Konsequenzen der Herrscherwechsel im Imperium Romanum der Soldatenkaiserzeit (3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) |date=1982 |publisher=P. Lang |isbn=978-3820461954 |page=121 |url-access=registration}}</ref> during the rule of [[Gordian III]] (AD 238–244) or [[Philip the Arab]] (AD 244–249).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mennen |first1=Inge |title=Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004203594 |page=A1}}</ref> Based upon the location of his aurei, some scholars posit that he may have staged a revolt in [[Pannonia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldsworthy |first1=Adrian |url=https://archive.org/details/howromefelldeath0000gold/page/426/mode/2up |title=How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower |date=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300155600 |page=427 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy |url-access=registration}}</ref> Ilkka Syvänne places the revolt early in Philip's reign, and identifies Sponsianus with the obscure Severus Hostilianus mentioned in later [[Byzantine]] histories (though he notes the evidence is circumstantial).<ref>{{cite book |last=Syvänne |first=Ilkka |title=Gordian III and Philip the Arab: The Roman Empire at a Crossroads |location=Great Britain |year=2021 |isbn=9781526786753 |url=https://archive.org/details/odarci-vol-2/Ilkka%20Syv%C3%A4nne%20-%20Gordian%20III%20and%20Philip%20the%20Arab.%20The%20Roman%20Empire%20at%20a%20Crossroads/page/n3/mode/2up}}</ref>
-Another explanation is that he was a military commander who crowned himself as emperor when [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]] was cut off from the rest of the empire around 260. With an [[Plague of Cyprian|ongoing pandemic]] and civil war, and the empire being fragmented at the time, Sponsianus may have assumed supreme command to protect the military and civilian population of Dacia until order was restored. The Romans eventually evacuated Dacia between 271 and 275.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> According to Jesper Ericsson:<ref name=":0" />
+Another explanation is that he was a military commander who crowned himself as emperor when [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]] was cut off from the rest of the empire around 260. With an [[Plague of Cyprian|ongoing pandemic]] and civil war, and the empire being fragmented at the time, Sponsianus may have assumed supreme command to protect the military and civilian population of Dacia until order was restored. The Romans eventually evacuated Dacia between 271 and 275.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> According to Jesper Ericsson:
 {{blockquote|
@@ Line 38: / Line 40: @@
 * [[Ingenuus]]
 * [[Regalianus]]
+* [[Silbannacus]]
 ==Notes==