Transgenerational trauma: Difference between revisions
→Native Americans: This is a primary source piece of research. Has to go. Says nothing about transgenerational trauma. |
Primary source, has to go |
||
Line 39: | Line 39: | ||
==== Cambodian ==== |
==== Cambodian ==== |
||
Since 1975, the US has accepted many refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos. While majority of these groups were fleeing war and poverty, Cambodian refugees were also fleeing a genocide from the Khmer Rouge. The atrocities of violence, starvation and torture were common themes experienced by these refugees.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Islam|first1=Asadul|last2=Ouch|first2=Chandarany|last3=Smyth|first3=Russell|last4=Wang|first4=Liang Choon| name-list-style = vanc |date=2017|title=The Intergenerational Effect of Cambodia's Genocide on Children's Education and Health|journal=Population and Development Review | volume=43|issue=2|pages=331–353|doi=10.1111/padr.12047|issn=1728-4457|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10.1111/padr.2017.43.issue-2|hdl=10.1111/padr.2017.43.issue-2|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Compared to the national rate of PTSD, Cambodian refugees were found to have a significantly higher rate of PTSD.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Suyemoto |first2=Karen L.| name-list-style = vanc |date=2016-04-20 |title=So You, My Children, Can Have a Better Life: A Cambodian American Perspective on the Phenomenology of Intergenerational Communication about Trauma |journal=Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=400–420 |doi=10.1080/10926771.2015.1133748 |s2cid=148502474 }}</ref> While over-parenting can sometimes be seen as a symptom of PTSD, this was not widely expressed among Cambodian Americans.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Field NP, Muong S, Sochanvimean V | title = Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 483–94 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24164520 | doi = 10.1111/ajop.12057 }}</ref> Instead, many Cambodian refugee families refused to talk about their trauma creating an isolating environment for the child. This led to a transmission of trauma and through the continuing pattern of silence and refusal to acknowledge an issue or seek treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Suyemoto |first2=Karen L. |last3=Kiang |first3=Peter Nien-chu | name-list-style = vanc |date= August 2009 |title=Education as Catalyst for Intergenerational Refugee Family Communication About War and Trauma|journal=Communication Disorders Quarterly | volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=195–207 |doi=10.1177/1525740108329234 |s2cid=145621745 }}</ref> |
Since 1975, the US has accepted many refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos. While majority of these groups were fleeing war and poverty, Cambodian refugees were also fleeing a genocide from the Khmer Rouge. The atrocities of violence, starvation and torture were common themes experienced by these refugees.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Islam|first1=Asadul|last2=Ouch|first2=Chandarany|last3=Smyth|first3=Russell|last4=Wang|first4=Liang Choon| name-list-style = vanc |date=2017|title=The Intergenerational Effect of Cambodia's Genocide on Children's Education and Health|journal=Population and Development Review | volume=43|issue=2|pages=331–353|doi=10.1111/padr.12047|issn=1728-4457|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10.1111/padr.2017.43.issue-2|hdl=10.1111/padr.2017.43.issue-2|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Compared to the national rate of PTSD, Cambodian refugees were found to have a significantly higher rate of PTSD.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Suyemoto |first2=Karen L.| name-list-style = vanc |date=2016-04-20 |title=So You, My Children, Can Have a Better Life: A Cambodian American Perspective on the Phenomenology of Intergenerational Communication about Trauma |journal=Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=400–420 |doi=10.1080/10926771.2015.1133748 |s2cid=148502474 }}</ref> While over-parenting can sometimes be seen as a symptom of PTSD, this was not widely expressed among Cambodian Americans.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Field NP, Muong S, Sochanvimean V | title = Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 483–94 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24164520 | doi = 10.1111/ajop.12057 }}</ref> Instead, many Cambodian refugee families refused to talk about their trauma creating an isolating environment for the child. This led to a transmission of trauma and through the continuing pattern of silence and refusal to acknowledge an issue or seek treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Suyemoto |first2=Karen L. |last3=Kiang |first3=Peter Nien-chu | name-list-style = vanc |date= August 2009 |title=Education as Catalyst for Intergenerational Refugee Family Communication About War and Trauma|journal=Communication Disorders Quarterly | volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=195–207 |doi=10.1177/1525740108329234 |s2cid=145621745 }}</ref> Studies also showed that when both parental figures had PTSD, the child was more likely to have higher rates of PTSD.<ref name=":4" /> There has also been data showing that the children of survivors from regions with higher rates of violence and mortality displayed stronger overall symptoms.<ref name=":32" /> Role reversal parenting as a form of therapy has show to have positive outcomes amongst [[Cambodian Americans]] and have helped to mend broken relationships between parent and child with a much more significant effect on mothers and daughters. In this type of therapy, the parent looks to the child for emotional support which may lower PTSD in the parent, and decrease a sense of isolation and abandonment for the child.<ref name=":5" /> |
||
== Transmission == |
== Transmission == |
Revision as of 23:57, 6 November 2020
Transgenerational trauma, or intergenerational trauma is a psychological term which asserts that trauma can be transferred in between generations. After a first generation of survivors experiences trauma, they are able to transfer their trauma to their children and further generations of offspring via complex post-traumatic stress disorder mechanisms. This field of research is relatively young, but has expanded in recent years.[1] Critics describe the concept of biologically inherited trauma as implausible or non-existent, since no mechanism for a process has been identified and that the studies which claim to support it rely on small samples and flawed methodology.[2][3][4]
History
Intergenerational trauma was first recognized in the children of Holocaust survivors. In 1966, psychologists began to observe large numbers of children of Holocaust survivors seeking mental help in clinics in Canada. The grandchildren of Holocaust survivors were overrepresented by 300% among the referrals to a psychiatry clinic in comparison with their representation in the general population.[5] Since then, transgenerational trauma has been documented in descendants of slaves, Native Americans, war survivors, refugees, survivors of interpersonal abuse, and many other groups.
Historical trauma
Instances of transgenerational trauma where the trauma is a shared experience amongst a group of people and their role in society, are often referred to as historical trauma. In general, Historical trauma consists of three factors: the widespread nature, traumatic events resulting in a collective suffering, and the malicious intent of those inflicting the trauma.[6] This form of trauma is specific as it affects a large population and is typically more complex than individual trauma. Historical trauma can result in a greater loss of identity and meaning, which in turn may affect generations upon generations until the trauma is ingrained into society.[7]
Building upon the clinical observations by Selma Fraiberg, child trauma researchers such as Byron Egeland, Inge Bretherton, and Daniel Schechter have empirically identified psychological mechanisms that favor intergenerational transmission, including dissociation in the context of attachment, and "communication"[clarification needed] of prior traumatic experience as an effect of parental efforts to maintain self-regulation in the context of post-traumatic stress disorder and related alterations in social cognitive processes.[8][9][10][11][12]
Symptoms
Symptoms of intergenerational trauma always begins with the survivor of a trauma, which tend to manifest as symptoms of PTSD. Oftentimes trauma in the second generation is deemed as a traumatic response to parental trauma.[13] Transmission between the parent and child can be broken down into 5 measures: communication, conflict, family cohesion, parental warmth, and parental involvement.[14] High levels of maternal stress were directly correlated with weak family functioning and indirectly correlated with deviant behavior among children. Common symptoms in children consisted of depression, antisocial behavior, delinquency, and disruptive behavior in school.[15] Some children experienced direct transmission in which their trauma stemmed from the interactions and relationships with their parents, while others experienced indirect transmission in which their trauma was mainly rooted in guilt. Those who were affected through direct transmission were more likely to lash out through their actions, while those who were affected through indirect transmission were more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and guilt.[16]
Symptoms also differed based on ethnicity and type of original trauma. Enslavement, genocide, domestic violence, sexual abuse, and extreme poverty are all common sources of trauma that lead to intergenerational trauma. A lack of therapy also worsens symptoms and can lead to transmission. For instance, survivors of child sexual abuse may negatively influence future generations due to their past unresolved trauma. This can lead to increased feelings of mistrust, isolation, and loneliness.[17] Descendants of slaves when faced with racism-motivated violence, microaggressions, or outward racism, react as if they were faced with the original trauma that was generationally transmitted to them. There are a variety of stressors in one's life that led to this PTSD-like reaction such as varying racist experiences, daily stressors, major race-related life events, or collective racism or traumas.[18] This also presents itself in parenting styles.[19] Goodman and West-Olatunji proposed potential transgenerational trauma in the aftermath of natural disasters.[20] In a post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans, residents have seen a dramatic increase in interpersonal violence with higher mortality rates.[21] This phenomenon has been also been reported in the descendants of Indigenous students at residential schools, who were removed from their parents and extended family and lacked models for parenting as a result. Being punished for speaking their native language and forbidden from practicing traditional rituals had a traumatic effect on many students, and child abuse was rampant in the schools as well.[22][23][24][25]
Symptoms of transgenerational trauma have in recent years been identified among Black Americans, in relation to the effects of slavery and racial discrimination. This passing of trauma can be rooted from the family unit itself, or found in society via current discrimination and oppression.[26] The traumatic event does not need to be individually experienced by all members of a family; the lasting effects can still remain and impact descendants from external factors. For example, Black children's internalization of others' reactions to their skin color manifests as a form of lasting trauma originally experienced by their ancestors.[27][28] This reaction to Black skin stems from similar attitudes that led to the traumatizing conditions and enslavement of slaves. Black children and youth are more susceptible to racial trauma because they have not yet acquired the knowledge to have a full understanding of racism and its effects. However, these traumatizing behaviors experienced at such a young age are a reflection of a child's parenting. A White child may learn racist behaviors from their environment, but on the same token a Black child can learn to assert their blackness and how to respond to racist remarks and actions from their parents.[29] Traces of trauma have an impact on Black and other minority children's success in an educational context. Transgenerational trauma has also been heavily recorded in refugees and their children, which can last through several generations. Such traumas can stem from violence, political persecution, familial instability, as well as the hardships of migration.[30]
Affected groups
Descendants of Enslaved People
In recent years, symptoms of transgenerational trauma has been identified among Black Americans, in relation to the effects of slavery and racial discrimination. This passing of trauma can be rooted from the family unit itself, or found in society via current discrimination and oppression. The traumatic event does not need to be individually experienced by all members of a family; the lasting effects can still remain and impact descendants from external factors. For example, Black children's internalization of others' reactions to their skin color manifests as a form of lasting trauma originally experienced by their ancestors. This reaction to Black skin stems from similar attitudes that led to the traumatizing conditions and enslavement of slaves. Black children and youth are more susceptible to racial trauma because they have not yet acquired the knowledge to have a full understanding of racism and its effects. Traces of trauma have an impact on Black and other minority children's success in an educational context. Trangenerational trauma has also been heavily recorded in refugees and their children, which can last through several generations. Such traumas can stem from violence, political persecution, familial instability, as well as the hardships of migration.
In general, Black Americans who suffer from any mental illness are resistant to receiving treatment due to stigma, negative conceptions, and fear of discrimination. This reduces the number of those affected to seek help.[31] Lack of treatment causes the symptoms to compound leading to further internalization of distress and a worsening of mental health in the individual.[32] Those affected by race-based trauma oftentimes do not seek treatment not only because of stigma but because of fear that the medical professional will not understand their perspective of a disenfranchised minority. Furthermore, the existing stigma of mental health has led to a lack of research and consequently treatment. However, lack of treatment can also be attributed to the misdiagnosis of symptoms. Signs of trauma exhibited in Black children are often labeled as behavioral or educational disabilities, allowing the trauma to go untreated. While trauma symptoms often manifest as other mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety, the larger diagnosis often goes untreated.[33]
Indigenous Canadians
The fact that Canadian Indigenous groups experience mental illness, suicide and substance use problems more than non-Indigenous populations has been cited as an example of intergenerational trauma.[34] The Truth and Reconciliation Commission describes how Indigenous individuals experienced high rates of physical and sexual abuse in the residential school system, and that the children of Indigenous individuals who never directly experienced the residential school system themselves may still exhibit trauma sensitivity that is disproportionate to their lived experiences thus far. This is considered evidence that the negative impact of Canadian colonization on Indigenous wellbeing has been transmitted down through generations of Indigenous families.[35]
Koreans
Han is a concept of an emotion, variously described as some form of grief or resentment, among others, that is said to be an essential element of Korean identity by some, and a modern post-colonial identity by others.[36]
Jon Huer describes han as a generational feeling of "having been 'wronged' by a superior agent", such as fate or the government.[37] According to John M. Glionna, han is "intensely personal, yet carried around collectively, a national torch, a badge of suffering tempered by a sense of resiliency".[38] According to Joshua D. Pilzer, the idea of han as a national characteristic is recent and arises from Koreans' "modern search for national essences in the wake of colonialism, and in the midst of authoritarian capitalist development and national division".[36]
Michael D. Shin argues that the central aspect of han is loss of identity, and defines han as "the complex of emotions that result from the traumatic loss of collective identity". Han is most commonly associated with divided families: families who were separated during the Korean War. According to Shin, all Koreans may experience han, or a "constant feeling of being less than whole", because of not having a collective identity as a result of the continued division of Korea. Furthermore, new generations of Koreans seemingly inherit it because of growing up in a divided country.[39]
Refugees
One group of people that is often more likely to experience transgenerational trauma is refugees. While all refugees experience some sort of trauma, war related trauma has been documented to have longer lasting effects mental health and span through more generations.[30] Children are especially prone to the trauma of resettling as their childhood has been disrupted by a migration to a new country. They also often face the difficulty of learning a new language, adapting to a new environment, and navigating the social system of school in their host country. Furthermore, most host countries, do not provide an adequate mental healthcare systems to refugees which can worsen symptoms and lead to transmission of trauma.[40] In general, children of refugees overall had higher levels of depression, PTSD, anxiety, attention deficiency, stress, and other psychological issues.[30] Oftentimes, these symptoms manifest as teen delinquency and violent behavior.[41]
Cambodian
Since 1975, the US has accepted many refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos. While majority of these groups were fleeing war and poverty, Cambodian refugees were also fleeing a genocide from the Khmer Rouge. The atrocities of violence, starvation and torture were common themes experienced by these refugees.[42] Compared to the national rate of PTSD, Cambodian refugees were found to have a significantly higher rate of PTSD.[43] While over-parenting can sometimes be seen as a symptom of PTSD, this was not widely expressed among Cambodian Americans.[44] Instead, many Cambodian refugee families refused to talk about their trauma creating an isolating environment for the child. This led to a transmission of trauma and through the continuing pattern of silence and refusal to acknowledge an issue or seek treatment.[45] Studies also showed that when both parental figures had PTSD, the child was more likely to have higher rates of PTSD.[43] There has also been data showing that the children of survivors from regions with higher rates of violence and mortality displayed stronger overall symptoms.[42] Role reversal parenting as a form of therapy has show to have positive outcomes amongst Cambodian Americans and have helped to mend broken relationships between parent and child with a much more significant effect on mothers and daughters. In this type of therapy, the parent looks to the child for emotional support which may lower PTSD in the parent, and decrease a sense of isolation and abandonment for the child.[44]
Transmission
Epigenetic transmission
Previous research assumed that trauma was only transmitted by the parents' child-rearing behavior. However, it may also be epigenetically transferred. Epigenetics studies how gene expression and cellular activity is influenced by external factors such as environment. A vastly researched event of epigenetics modifying genes within generations is the Dutch Hunger Winter Famine. Those directly experiencing the famine suppressed specific genes and expressed other ones that aided in survival. When the survivors had offspring, their children also had the same genes suppressed and/or expressed. Therefore, one way trauma can be transferred is through epigenetics. Furthermore, when a child is raised in the same environment as their ancestors, it can trigger the reformation of a gene in each generation; this is the most indirect form of epigenetic imprinting. The epigenome may also be passed through the gametes. For this to occur, the epigenome must be present in the germline. The epigenome is also extensively reprogrammed during germ cell differentiation and after fertilization to create totipotent cells, erasing many changes that occur during an individual's lifetime.[46] Therefore, the best candidates for heritable epigenetic marks are located at repeat/transposable sequences or regulatory elements that are resistant to reprogramming.[47] Since epigenetic mechanisms can be affected by the environment, it is difficult to determine the extent to which the environment and direct inheritance influence offsprings' epigenome. Therefore, the most compelling studies are in lab settings with controlled environments.
Non-coding RNA is currently one of the most investigated epigenetic mechanisms in the study of transgenerational trauma. Small ncRNAs guide histone methylation and post-transcriptionally regulate mRNA.[48] In C. elegans, starvation-induced stress triggered the expression of small RNAs that cause gene silencing and persist for several generations. These generational effects have been correlated with behavioral phenotypes in some studies. When microRNA (miRNA) from the sperm of these C. elegans was injected into fertilized oocytes, the offspring exhibited similar phenotypes.[47] Although the mechanism of this transmission is complex, one hypothesis is that piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and exogenous RNAi are involved in a pathway with secondary small RNAs and chromatin regulatory complexes that results in stable transgenerational inheritance.[49]
DNA methylation is another mechanism studied for transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. 5-methylcytosine (5mC) is the form of methylated DNA linked to gene repression in mammals, and N6-Methyladenosineis linked to promotion of gene activity. Various empirical studies have shown that trauma alters methylation patterns in the offspring of survivors, predominantly at the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) gene.[50] For DNA methylation to be inherited, it has to be stable enough to undergo mitosis and meiosis, and it must escape the aforementioned epigenetic reprogramming. 5mc at repeat sequences and rare regulatory elements are resistant to reprogramming.[47] However, it has been hard to find methylated regions that are stable over multiple generations, and there have been a lot of discrepancies across studies. These discrepancies may be due to method of methylation analysis used or due to variations in the epigenome between individuals.
Recent evidence suggests that histone modifications may also be inherited across generations. Histones tend to be preserved at housekeeping sites and developmentally regulated genes in sperm and are preserved everywhere in oocytes.[47] Although it isn't confirmed, if changes in the histone modification machinery were to cause phenotypic changes, a second epigenetic mechanism may be involved.
Transmission during pregnancy
Another major way that stress can be transmitted across generations biologically is through the uterine environment. The gestational stage is a developmentally sensitive stage in an individual's lifespan. Exposure to harmful stimuli during this stage can have long-lasting, detrimental effects.[51] The uterine environment with its unique blend of the mother's cellular secretions and proteins is a major source of stimuli.[52] Empirical evidence has shown that trauma experienced by a mother during pregnancy can affect offspring's physiology and psychology.[50] One possible method of transmission is through transport vesicles transferring amino acids and microRNA from the uterine fluid to the fetus.[51] These molecules may then alter gene expression in a way that affects the developmental trajectory of the fetus. Most biological research on transgenerational trauma has focused on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is the center of the body's stress response system. One way the HPA axis responds to stress is by triggering the production of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol.[50] Cortisol triggers “fight-or-flight” physiological symptoms like increased blood pressure and heart rate. In animal models, maternal stress and trauma during pregnancy has been shown to reduce the expression of placental enzyme 11B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11 β-HSD2), which converts the mother's cortisol to inactive cortisone. This leads to increased fetal exposure to the mother's glucocorticoids, which affects the development of glucocorticoid-sensitive systems like the HPA axis. In some studies, abnormal cortisol levels compared to controls and alterations in DNA methylation were observed in infants of mothers who endured trauma while pregnant, particularly in the NR3C1 glucocorticoid receptor gene.[52]
Psychological and social aspects
There are many current transgenerational studies that have been done on adults that have experienced natural disasters or adversities. One study found that the children of torture victims showed more symptoms of anxiety, depression, post‐traumatic stress, attention deficits and behavioral disorders compared with the comparison group of those who had not experienced the specific trauma.[53] A qualitative study was done on the Brazilian children of Holocaust survivors. This study was able to propose not only a supported model of the transgenerational transmission of traumatic experiences, but one also of resilience patterns that can be transmitted in between generations and developed within generations.[54] According to Walsh, Resilience Theory suggests that individuals' and families' responses to traumatic experiences is an ever-changing process that involves both exposure to challenges and the development of coping mechanisms that aide in one's ability to overcome such challenges [55]. Regardless of risk, there also exists opportunities for the development of resilience via exposure to meaningful resources that support one's ability to overcome adversity [56]. Researchers Cowan, Callaghan, & Richardson studied the impact of early-life adversities on individuals and their descendants. Their research was also consistent with the transmission theory, in which their findings revealed that the stress phenotype that was expressed in individuals who experienced the adversity was also observed in children and even grandchildren.[57]
The famous study of Harlow's monkeys also revealed that the adversity of a maternal variable which would create stress in the individual was also witnessed in their offspring although not having experienced the adversity.[58] One last study displayed that if children were exposed to high postnatal maternal licking/grooming and arched-back nursing then they were likely to do the same to their offspring. Vice versa, if children experienced low LG-ABN mothers, then they were likely to provide the same to their offspring. Consequently, this causes a decrease in serotonin and expression, and an increase in methylation. Ultimately, a more stressed pup is created, causing this phenotype to be passed on through experience and genes.[59]
Theses studies allude to the fact that oftentimes adversity, especially early on and for longer periods of time, can impact development in individuals and their offspring.
The oppression that black people experienced through slavery and racism has a psychological impact on how they view achievement.[60] In terms of the social aspects of this, seem to make it difficult for black people to surpass a certain SES threshold, to escape a certain neighborhood, to move beyond a certain lifestyle or status.[61]
For Native Americans, past government policy and internal displacements theorized to have an effect generations later.[62] The social enforcement of their ostracization causes them to be generally removed from society, to be powerless and uninvited in government, and to be left to fend for themselves.[24] The transgenerational transmission of colonial trauma is also considered a contributing factor in the high rates of mental health difficulties Canadian Indigenous communities experience. Displacement and maltreatment during colonization had led to negative effects in the children of Indigenous peoples who survived such experiences. This is passed down generationally via ongoing social marginalization and lateral violence. The loss of Indigenous cultures and resulting lack of community cohesion poses a further challenge for Indigenous groups in resolving transgenerational trauma.[34]
Treatment
Like all other mental disorders, the key to preventing transgenerational trauma is to recognize the issue and to intervene before transmission occurs. Because intergenerational trauma often stems from other issues, it is often unrecognized or misdiagnosed by clinicians.[63] Moreover, there is a lack of trauma therapy specialists in the US which further affects treatment.[64] A lack of treatment has many consequences such as health, behavioral, and social issues that can persist throughout the child's life.[65]
In more complex intergenerational trauma diagnoses, the Transgenerational Trauma and Resilience Genogram (TTRG) can be helpful to clinicians to fully grasp the situation. The TTRG maps out the family unit, marking those who have experienced trauma and their experience, as well as relationships between individuals, and patterns of functioning.[66]
Criticism
Professor of genetics and neuroscience Kevin Mitchell argues that a mechanism for transgenerational trauma is implausible, and that many have looked at it as a “get out of genetics free card”, adding "I think people don't like the idea, some people anyway, that we are born with certain predispositions that are hard to change". Mitchell says that experiences are expressed through changes in human neuroanatomy, not patterns of gene expression. He says that scientists in this area have contributed to the misleading research in this area: "There is a hype industry around science, which I think is corrosive. And I think scientists are willing participants in it in a way that I find more and more distasteful the older I get, because it does a massive disservice cumulatively to how science is understood by the general public because we have this constant hype".[4]
Biologist Ewan Birney criticised a paper entitled 'Holocaust Exposure Induced Intergenerational Effects on FKBP5 Methylation' which used a tiny sample size of 32 people to back its claim that children of Holocaust survivors showed evidence of inherited stress.[67] He argues that 'It is particularly difficult to show true trans-generational inheritance in humans' and thus it is hard to prove that Trans-generational epigenetic inheritance can apply to mammals commonly due to the numerous factors including 'complex societal forces that persist over time'.[2]
See also
- American Indian boarding schools
- Collective trauma
- Dispossession, oppression and depression
- Historical trauma
- Intergenerationality
- National memory
- Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome
- Seasoning (slavery)
- Slave health on plantations in the United States
- Slavery hypertension hypothesis
- Weathering hypothesis
References
- ^ Dekel R, Goldblatt H (July 2008). "Is there intergenerational transmission of trauma? The case of combat veterans' children". The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 78 (3): 281–9. doi:10.1037/a0013955. PMID 19123747. S2CID 12737543.
- ^ a b "Why I'm sceptical about the idea of genetically inherited trauma". the Guardian. 2015-09-11. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
- ^ "Can We Really Inherit Trauma? - The New York Times". web.archive.org. 2020-08-30. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
- ^ a b McKenna, Claire. "Kevin Mitchell". BJPsych Bulletin. 44 (2): 81–83. doi:10.1192/bjb.2020.18. ISSN 2056-4694. PMC 7283122.
- ^ Fossion P, Rejas MC, Servais L, Pelc I, Hirsch S (2003). "Family approach with grandchildren of Holocaust survivors". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 57 (4): 519–27. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2003.57.4.519. PMID 14735877.
- ^ O'Neill L, Fraser T, Kitchenham A, McDonald V (June 2018). "Hidden Burdens: a Review of Intergenerational, Historical and Complex Trauma, Implications for Indigenous Families". Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. 11 (2): 173–186. doi:10.1007/s40653-016-0117-9. PMC 7163829. PMID 32318148.
- ^ Eyerrnan R (June 2004). "The Past in the Present Culture and the Transmission of Memory". Acta Sociologica. 47 (2). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 160.
- ^ Fraiberg S, Adelson E, Shapiro V (1975). "Ghosts in the nursery. A psychoanalytic approach to the problems of impaired infant-mother relationships". Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry. 14 (3): 387–421. doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)61442-4. PMID 1141566.
- ^ Egeland B, Susman-Stillman A (November 1996). "Dissociation as a mediator of child abuse across generations". Child Abuse & Neglect. 20 (11): 1123–32. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00102-0. PMID 8958463.
- ^ Bretherton I (1990). "Communication patterns, internal working models, and the intergenerational transmission of attachment relationships". Infant Mental Health Journal. 11 (3): 237–251. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(199023)11:3<237::AID-IMHJ2280110306>3.0.CO;2-X.
- ^ Schechter DS (September 2003). "Intergenerational communication of maternal violent trauma: Understanding the interplay of reflective functioning and posttraumatic psychopathology.". In Coates SW, Rosenthal JL, Schechter DS (eds.). Trauma and Human Bonds. Hillside, NJ: Analytic Press, Inc. pp. 115–142.
- ^ Schechter DS, Zygmunt A, Coates SW, Davies M, Trabka K, McCaw J, et al. (September 2007). "Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations on the MacArthur Story Stem Battery". Attachment & Human Development. 9 (3): 187–205. doi:10.1080/14616730701453762. PMC 2078523. PMID 18007959.
- ^ Weinberg MK, Cummins RA (2013-04-01). "Intergenerational Effects of the Holocaust: Subjective Well-Being in the Offspring of Survivors". Journal of Intergenerational Relationships. 11 (2): 148–161. doi:10.1080/15350770.2013.782745. S2CID 144450498.
- ^ Harachi TW, Choi Y, Abbott RD, Catalano RF, Bliesner SL (December 2006). "Examining equivalence of concepts and measures in diverse samples". Prevention Science. 7 (4): 359–68. doi:10.1007/s11121-006-0039-0. PMC 3293252. PMID 16845592.
- ^ Sangalang CC, Jager J, Harachi TW (July 2017). "Effects of maternal traumatic distress on family functioning and child mental health: An examination of Southeast Asian refugee families in the U.S". Social Science & Medicine. 184: 178–186. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.032. PMID 28515007.
- ^ O'Neill L, Fraser T, Kitchenham A, McDonald V (2018-06-01). "Hidden Burdens: a Review of Intergenerational, Historical and Complex Trauma, Implications for Indigenous Families". Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. 11 (2): 173–186. doi:10.1007/s40653-016-0117-9. PMC 7163829. PMID 32318148.
- ^ Frazier K, West-Olatunji C, St Juste S, Goodman R (2009). "Transgenerational Trauma and Child Sexual Abuse: Reconceptualizing Cases Involving Young Survivors of CSA". Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 31 (1): 22–33. doi:10.17744/mehc.31.1.u72580m253524811. ISSN 1040-2861.
- ^ Harrell, Shelly. (2000). A Multidimensional Conceptualization of Racism-Related Stress: Implications for the Well-Being of People of Color. The American journal of orthopsychiatry. 70. 42-50.
- ^ Sullivan S (2013). "Inheriting Racist Disparities in Health: Epigenetics and the Transgenerational Effects of White Racism". Critical Philosophy of Race. 1 (2): 190–218. doi:10.5325/critphilrace.1.2.0190.
- ^ Goodman R, West-Olatunji C (2008). "Transgenerational Trauma and Resilience: Improving Mental Health Counseling for Survivors of Hurricane Katrina". Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 30 (2): 121–136. doi:10.17744/mehc.30.2.q52260n242204r84. ISSN 1040-2861.
- ^ Franks J (2007-08-29). "Slow recovery goes on in crime-wear New Orleans". Reuters. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
{{cite news}}
:|archive-date=
requires|archive-url=
(help) - ^ Haag AM (2007). "The Indian Boarding School Era and Its Continuing Impact on Tribal Families and the Provision of Government Services". Tulsa L. Rev. 43: 149.
- ^ Brave Heart MY, DeBruyn LM (1998). "The American Indian Holocaust: healing historical unresolved grief" (PDF). American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research : Journal of the National Center. 8 (2): 56–78. PMID 9842066.
- ^ a b Brown-Rice K (2013). Examining the Theory of Historical Trauma Among Native Americans (PDF). The Professional Counselor. pp. 117–130.
- ^ Rotondaro V (1 September 2015). "Boarding schools: A black hole of Native American history". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
- ^ Gump JP (January 2010). "Reality Matters: The Shadow of Trauma on African American Subjectivity". Psychoanalytic Psychology. 27 (1): 48. doi:10.1037/a0018639.
- ^ Akhtar S (2012). The African American Experience Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Jason Aronson. p. 291.
- ^ Bonnovitz J (2012). White Analysts Seeing Black Patients, The African American Experience Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Jason Aronson. p. 285.
- ^ Jernigan MM, Daniel JH (April 2011). "Racial trauma in the lives of Black children and adolescents: Challenges and clinical implications". Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. 4 (2): 123–41. doi:10.1080/19361521.2011.574678. S2CID 145288431.
- ^ a b c Sangalang CC, Vang C (June 2017). "Intergenerational Trauma in Refugee Families: A Systematic Review". Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health. 19 (3): 745–754. doi:10.1007/s10903-016-0499-7. PMC 5362358. PMID 27659490.
- ^ Williams MT, Malcoun E, Sawyer BA, Davis DM, Bahojb Nouri L, Bruce SL (June 2014). "Cultural adaptations of prolonged exposure therapy for treatment and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder in african americans". Behavioral Sciences. 4 (2): 102–24. doi:10.3390/bs4020102. PMC 4219246. PMID 25379272.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Coleman JA (July 2016). "Racial Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Personnel: Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma as a Theoretical Lens". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 25 (6): 564–565. doi:10.1080/10926771.2016.1157842. S2CID 148220622.
- ^ Goodman RD, West-Olatunji C (2010). "Educational hegemony, traumatic stress, and african american and latino american students". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 38 (3): 176–178. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2010.tb00125.x.
- ^ a b Kirmayer, Laurence J; Brass, Gregory M; Tait, Caroline L (2000). "The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples: Transformations of Identity and Community". The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 45 (7): 607–616. doi:10.1177/070674370004500702. ISSN 0706-7437. PMID 11056823.
- ^ Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.
- ^ a b Pilzer 2016, p. 171.
- ^ Huer, Jon (22 March 2009). "Psychology of Korean Han". The Korea Times. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
- ^ Glionna, John M. (5 January 2011). "A complex feeling tugs at Koreans". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
- ^ Shin, Michael D. "A Brief History of Han". The Korea Society. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
- ^ Fazel M, Wheeler J, Danesh J (2005). "Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: a systematic review". Lancet. 365 (9467): 1309–14. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61027-6. PMID 15823380. S2CID 23060431.
- ^ Daud A, Skoglund E, Rydelius PA (2005). "Children in families of torture victims: transgenerational transmission of parents' traumatic experiences to their children". International Journal of Social Welfare. 14 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2005.00336.x.
- ^ a b Islam A, Ouch C, Smyth R, Wang LC (2017). "The Intergenerational Effect of Cambodia's Genocide on Children's Education and Health". Population and Development Review. 43 (2): 331–353. doi:10.1111/padr.12047. hdl:10.1111/padr.2017.43.issue-2. ISSN 1728-4457.
- ^ a b Lin NJ, Suyemoto KL (2016-04-20). "So You, My Children, Can Have a Better Life: A Cambodian American Perspective on the Phenomenology of Intergenerational Communication about Trauma". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 25 (4): 400–420. doi:10.1080/10926771.2015.1133748. S2CID 148502474.
- ^ a b Field NP, Muong S, Sochanvimean V (October 2013). "Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia". The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 83 (4): 483–94. doi:10.1111/ajop.12057. PMID 24164520.
- ^ Lin NJ, Suyemoto KL, Kiang PN (August 2009). "Education as Catalyst for Intergenerational Refugee Family Communication About War and Trauma". Communication Disorders Quarterly. 30 (4): 195–207. doi:10.1177/1525740108329234. S2CID 145621745.
- ^ Reik W, Dean W, Walter J (August 2001). "Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development". Science. 293 (5532): 1089–93. doi:10.1126/science.1063443. PMID 11498579. S2CID 17089710.
- ^ a b c d Blake GE, Watson ED (August 2016). "Unravelling the complex mechanisms of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 33: 101–7. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2016.06.008. PMID 27327212.
- ^ Choudhuri S (2010). "Small noncoding RNAs: biogenesis, function, and emerging significance in toxicology". Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology. 24 (3): 195–216. doi:10.1002/jbt.20325. PMID 20143452.
- ^ Almeida MV, de Jesus Domingues AM, Ketting RF (February 2019). "Maternal and zygotic gene regulatory effects of endogenous RNAi pathways". PLOS Genetics. 15 (2): e1007784. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007784. PMC 6391025. PMID 30759082.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c Yehuda R, Lehrner A (October 2018). "Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: putative role of epigenetic mechanisms". World Psychiatry. 17 (3): 243–257. doi:10.1002/wps.20568. PMC 6127768. PMID 30192087.
- ^ a b Kinsella MT, Monk C (September 2009). "Impact of maternal stress, depression and anxiety on fetal neurobehavioral development". Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. 52 (3): 425–40. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e3181b52df1. PMC 3710585. PMID 19661759.
- ^ a b "The biology of uterine fluid: How it informs the fetus of mom's world". Science News. June 22, 2017.
- ^ Rydelius PA, Skoglund E, Daud A (2005-01-01). "Children in families of torture victims: transgenerational transmission of parents' traumatic experiences to their children". International Journal of Social Welfare. 14 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2005.00336.x.
- ^ Braga LL, Mello MF, Fiks JP (September 2012). "Transgenerational transmission of trauma and resilience: a qualitative study with Brazilian offspring of Holocaust survivors". BMC Psychiatry. 12: 134. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-12-134. PMC 3500267. PMID 22943578.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Walsh, Froma (2002). "A Family Resilience Framework: Innovative Practice Applications". Family Relations. 51 (2): 130–137. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2002.00130.x. ISSN 1741-3729.
- ^ Echterling, L. G., Presbury, J. H., & McKee, J. E. (2005). Crisis intervention: Promoting resilience and resolution in troubled times. Prentice Hall.
- ^ Cowan CS, Callaghan BL, Kan JM, Richardson R (January 2016). "The lasting impact of early-life adversity on individuals and their descendants: potential mechanisms and hope for intervention". Genes, Brain, and Behavior. 15 (1): 155–68. doi:10.1111/gbb.12263. PMID 26482536.
- ^ "PsycNET". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 2019-04-29.
- ^ Youngson NA, Whitelaw E (2008). "Transgenerational epigenetic effects". Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics. 9: 233–57. doi:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164445. PMID 18767965. S2CID 2611836.
- ^ Collins P. Black Feminist Thought (PDF). pp. 32, 33.
- ^ Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW (2016-06-22). "Seeing Disorder: Neighborhood Stigma and the Social Construction of "Broken Windows"". Social Psychology Quarterly. 67 (4): 319–342. doi:10.1177/019027250406700401. S2CID 8626641.
- ^ Torpy SJ (January 2000). "Native American Women and Coerced Sterilization: On the Trail of Tears in the 1970s". American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 24 (2): 1–22. doi:10.17953/aicr.24.2.7646013460646042. S2CID 143126892.
- ^ Isobel S, Goodyear M, Furness T, Foster K (April 2019). "Preventing intergenerational trauma transmission: A critical interpretive synthesis". Journal of Clinical Nursing. 28 (7–8): 1100–1113. doi:10.1111/jocn.14735. PMID 30556334.
- ^ Struik A (2017). "The Trauma Healing Story. Healing Chronically Traumatised Children Through Their Families/Whanau". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy. 38 (4): 613–626. doi:10.1002/anzf.1271. ISSN 1467-8438.
- ^ Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, et al. (May 1998). "Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 14 (4): 245–58. doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8. PMID 9635069.
- ^ Goodman RD (2013-12-01). "The transgenerational trauma and resilience genogram". Counselling Psychology Quarterly. 26 (3–4): 386–405. doi:10.1080/09515070.2013.820172. ISSN 0951-5070. S2CID 144188999.
- ^ Yehuda, Rachel; Daskalakis, Nikolaos P.; Bierer, Linda M.; Bader, Heather N.; Klengel, Torsten; Holsboer, Florian; Binder, Elisabeth B. (2016-09-01). "Holocaust Exposure Induced Intergenerational Effects on FKBP5 Methylation". Biological Psychiatry. 80 (5): 372–380. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.005. ISSN 0006-3223. PMID 26410355. S2CID 3522658.
Sources
- Pilzer, Joshua D. (2016), "Musics of East Asia II: Korea", Excursions in World Music, Seventh Edition, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-1-317-21375-8
Further reading
- Coffey R (1998). Unspeakable truths and happy endings. Sidran Press. ISBN 1-886968-05-5.
- Danieli Y, ed. (1998). International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma. New York: Plenum.
- Daud A, Skoglund E, Rydelius P (2005). "Children in families of torture victims: transgenerational transmission of parents' traumatic experiences to their children". International Journal of Social Welfare. 14: 23–32. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2005.00336.x.
- Degruy J (2005). Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing. Uptone Press. ISBN 978-0963401120.
- Graff G (Spring 2017). "The Intergenerational Trauma of Slavery and Its Aftereffects: The Question of Reparations". Journal of Psychohistory. 44 (4): 256–268.
- Fossion P, Rejas MC, Servais L, Pelc I, Hirsch S (2003). "Family approach with grandchildren of Holocaust survivors". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 57 (4): 519–27. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2003.57.4.519. PMID 14735877.
- Herman JL (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
- Schwab G (2010). Haunting Legacies: Violent Histories and Transgenerational Trauma. Columbia University Press.
- Sibrava NJ, Bjornsson AS, Pérez Benítez AC, Moitra E, Weisberg RB, Keller MB (January 2019). "Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination". The American Psychologist. 74 (1): 101–116. doi:10.1037/amp0000339. PMC 6338337. PMID 30652903.
- van der Kolk BA, Roth S, Pelcovitz D, Sunday S, Spinazzola J (October 2005). "Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 18 (5): 389–99. doi:10.1002/jts.20047. PMID 16281237.
- Plaskon KD (2015). Silent Heroes of the Cold War. ISBN 978-1507884669.
External links
- Video by Leila Levinson, child of an American witness of concentration camp and author of Gated Grief.
- An article by a supervisor of Master's and Doctoral students specialising in trauma counselling, Wentzel Coetzer.
- Healing Collective Trauma, a website with resources on collective, historical, and transgenerational trauma.
- Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart on intergenerational trauma in Native Americans
- Master's thesis – Tim Haslett's NYU Master's Thesis on Transgenerational Haunting in African Diasporic Lifeworlds