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IBM System/390

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"IBM ES/9000" redirects here. For the IBM System 9000 family of computers, originally announced in 1982 as the IBM Instruments Computer System Model 9000 laboratory computer/instrument controller, see IBM System 9000.
"s390" redirects here. For the ESA/390 architecture, referred to as "s390" on Linux, see ESA/390.
IBM System/390
Inside the IBM S/390 Parallel Enterprise Server Generation 4
ManufacturerInternational Business Machines Corporation (IBM)
Typemainframe (S/360-compatible)
Release dateSeptember 5, 1990; 34 years ago (1990-09-05)
DiscontinuedDecember 31, 2004[1]
Operating systemMVS/ESA, OS/390, VSE/ESA and VM/ESA
MemoryES/9000: up to 2 GB main + 8 GB expanded
9672: up to 32 GB main (2 GB flat)
PredecessorIBM 3090, 4300 and 9370
SuccessorIBM Z
WebsiteOfficial website IBM Archives
"System/390 Announcement". IBM Archives. IBM. 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on January 16, 2005. Retrieved 2017-01-29.

The IBM System/390 is a discontinued mainframe product family implementing ESA/390, the fifth generation of the System/360 instruction set architecture. The first computers to use the ESA/390 were the Enterprise System/9000 (ES/9000) family, which were introduced in 1990. These were followed by the 9672, Multiprise, and Integrated Server families of System/390 in 1994–1999, using CMOS microprocessors. The ESA/390 succeeded ESA/370, used in the Enhanced 3090 and 4381 "E" models, and the System/370 architecture last used in the IBM 9370 low-end mainframe. ESA/390 was succeeded by the 64-bit z/Architecture in 2000.

History

[edit]

On September 5, 1990, IBM published a group of hardware and software announcements, two[2][3] of which included overviews of three announcements:

  • System/390[4] (S/390), as in 360 for 1960s, 370 for 1970s.
  • Enterprise System/9000[5][6] (ES/9000), as in 360 for 1960s, 370 for 1970s.
  • Enterprise Systems Architecture/390[7][8] (ESA/390) was IBM's last 31-bit-address/32-bit-data mainframe computing design, copied by Amdahl, Hitachi, and Fujitsu among other competitors. It was the successor of ESA/370 and, in turn, was succeeded by the 64-bit z/Architecture in 2000. Among other things, ESA/390 added fiber optics channels, known as Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON) channels, to the parallel (Bus and Tag) channels of ESA/370.

Despite the fact that IBM mentioned the 9000 family first in some of the day's announcements, it was clear "by the end of the day" that it was "for System/390,"[5] although it was a shortened name, S/390, that was placed on some of the actual "boxes" later shipped.[9][a]

The ES/9000 include rack-mounted models, free standing air cooled models and water cooled models. The low end models were substantially less expensive than the 3090 or 4381 previously needed to run MVS/ESA, and could also run VM/ESA and VSE/ESA, which IBM announced at the same time.

IBM periodically added named features to ESA/390 in conjunction with new processors; the ESA/390 Principles of Operation manual identifies them only by name, not by the processors supporting them.

Machines supporting the architecture were sold under the brand System/390 (S/390) from September 1990. The 9672 implementations of System/390 were the first high-end IBM mainframe architecture implemented first with CMOS CPU electronics rather than the traditional bipolar logic.

The IBM z13 was the last z Systems server to support running an operating system in ESA/390 architecture mode.[10] However, all 24-bit and 31-bit problem-state application programs originally written to run on the ESA/390 architecture readily run unaffected by this change.

S/390 computers

[edit]

ES/9000

[edit]

Eighteen models[b] were announced[11] September 5, 1990 for the ES/9000 in three form factors; the water-cooled 9021 to succeed the IBM 3090, and the air-cooled standalone 9121 and rack-mounted 9221 to succeed the IBM 4381 and 9370 respectively. The largest announced model had a 100-fold performance over the smallest model, and the clock frequency ranged from 67-111 MHz (15-9 ns) in the 9021 and 67 MHz in the 9121 to 26-33 MHz (38-30 ns) in the 9221. The 9221 models 120, 130 and 150 were initially available only with the "System/370 Base Option"; the "ESA Option" shipped in July 1991. The 9221 processors were made of VLSI CMOS chips designed in Böblingen, Germany, whence the 9672 line later originated.

The lower 6 of the 8 water-cooled models (codenamed H0) were immediately available, but used the same processor as the 3090-J, still at the 69 MHz (14.5 ns) maximum frequency and thus with unchanged performance. Those models' main difference from the 3090-J was the optional addition of ESCON, Sysplex and Integrated Cryptographic Feature. Only the models 900 and 820 had an all-new design (codenamed H2),[c] featuring private split I+D 128+128 KB L1 caches and a shared 4 MB L2 cache (2 MB per side) with 11-cycle latency, more direct interconnects between the processors, multi-level TLBs, branch target buffer and 111 MHz (9 ns) clock frequency. These were the first models with out-of-order execution since the System/370-195 of 1973. However unlike the old S/360-91-derived systems, the models 900 and 820 had full out-of-order execution for both integer and floating-point units, with precise exception handling, and a fully superscalar pipeline. Models 820 and 900 shipped to customers in September 1991, a year later than the models with older technology. Later these new technologies were used in models 520, 640, 660, 740 and 860.[14][15][16][13][17]

All three lines got additions and upgrades until 1993–1994. In February 1993 an 8-processor 141 MHz (7.1 ns) model 982 became available, with models 972, 962, 952, 942, 941, 831, 822, 821 and 711 following in March. These models, codenamed H5, had double the L2 cache and 30% higher per-processor performance than the H2 line, and added a hardware data compression.[18][19] The compression was also included in the new, 50% faster models of the 9121.[20] In April 1994, alongside the CMOS-based new 9672 series and improved 9221 models (with 40% faster cycle time and data compression),[21] IBM announced also their ultimate bipolar model, the 10-processor model 9X2 rated at 468 MIPS,[d] to become available in October.[37][38][39]

Models

[edit]
ES/9000 water-cooled models (9021-###)[6]
Model CPUs Sides Max storage
(main + expanded)		 Max channels
(Max ESCON)		 Shipping from
H0 (340-based models)[40][41]
720 6 2 0.5+4 GB 128 (64) September 1990
620 4
580 3 1 0.25+2 GB 64 (32)
500 2
340 1 128+1024 MB
330 1 128+512 MB "available by upgrade only"
H2 (520-based models)[15]
900 6 2 1+8 GB 256 (256) September 1991
860 5 February 1992[42]
820 4 September 1991
740 3 1 0.5+4 GB 128 (128) February 1992[42]
660 2 2
640 1
520 1 0.25+2 GB 64 (64)
H5 (711-based models)[18]
9X2 10 2 2+8 GB 256 (256) October 1994
982 8 February 1993
972 7 March 1993
962 6
952 5
942 4
941 4 1 1+4 GB 128 (128)
832 3 2 August 1993[43]
831 3 1 March 1993
822 2 2
821 2 1
711 1 0.5+2 GB 64 (64)
ES/9000 air-cooled standalone models (9121-###)[6][44]
Model CPUs Sides Max storage
(main + expanded)		 Max channels
(Max ESCON)		 Shipping from
320-based models[16][45]
610 4 2 512+1536 MB 96 (88) March 1992
570 3
490 2
480 1 256+768 MB 48 (44)[e] March 1991
440
320 1 September 1990
260
210 January 1991
190 128+384 MB 32 (28)[f] March 1991
180 [g] 32 (28) April 1992[46]
511-based models[47]
742 4 2 1+1 GB[h] 128 May 1993
732 3
622 2
621 1 0.5+0.5 GB[i] 64 February 1993
522 2 1+1 GB[h] November 1993[48]
521 1 0.5+0.5 GB[i] May 1993
511 1 February 1993
411 May 1993
311
ES/9000 air-cooled rack-mounted models (9221-###)[6]
Model CPUs Max storage
(main + expanded)		 Max channels
(Max ESCON)		 Shipping from
170-based models[16]
200 2 256 MB main 24 (24) Q3 1992[46]
170 1 Q4 1991
150 12 (12) December 1990[j]
130
120
211-based models[21]
421 2 512 MB[49][50] 24 (24) April 1994
221
211 1
201
191

ES/9000 features

[edit]
  • ESCON fiber optic channels
  • Sysplex for synchronizing the systems to ease management
  • Vector Facility: up to one vector processor per Central Processor available on the 9021 and 9121. First used on the 3090 to replace the IBM 3838 array processor announced in 1976 for System/370.[51]
  • Up to one Integrated Cryptographic Feature (ICRF) per side was available on the 9021 for accelerating encryption, succeeding the 3848 Cryptographic Unit.
  • (Each Central Processor accommodates one coprocessor at a time; the combined number of installed Vector Facilities and ICRFs cannot exceed the number of Central Processors.)
  • The new models of the 9021 and 9121 from 1993 and 9221 from 1994 feature data compression hardware.

Logical partitioning

[edit]
Main article: Logical partition

Previously available only on IBM 3090, Logical Partitions (LPARs) are a standard feature of the ES/9000 processors whereby IBM's Processor Resource/Systems Manager (PR/SM) hypervisor allows different operating systems to run concurrently in separate logical partitions (LPARs), with a high degree of isolation. Initially 7 partitions per a disconnected side were supported.[6][52] In December 1992 the LPAR capacity of the H2 (520-based) models was increased to 10 per a disconnected side. For example, a two-processor model 660 could now support up to 20 partitions instead of 14, if the two sides (each with one processor) are electrically isolated.[53]

This was introduced as part of IBM's moving towards "lights-out" operation and increased control of multiple system configurations.

9672

[edit]
IBM S/390 Parallel Enterprise Server Gen4

Launched in 1994 first as the "Parallel Transaction Server" (alongside the 9673 "Parallel Query Server"),[54] subsumed by the "Parallel Enterprise Server" launched later in the year,[55] the six generations of the IBM 9672 machines transitioned IBM's mainframes fully to CMOS microprocessors, as by a strategic decision no more ES/9000 (bipolar-based except the 9221) models would be released after 1994. The initial generations of 9672 were slower than the largest ES/9000 sold in parallel, but the fifth and sixth generations were the most powerful and capable ESA/390 machines built by IBM.[56]

Model Year Introduced Number of CPUs Performance (MIPS)[k] Memory (GB)
G1 – 9672-Rn1, 9672-Enn, 9672-Pnn[57] 1994 1–6 15–66 0.125–2
G2 – 9672-Rn2, 9672-Rn3 1995 1–10 15–171 0.125–4
G3 – 9672-Rn4 1996 1–10 33–374 0.5–8
G4 – 9672-Rn5 1997 1–10 49–447 0.5–16
G5 – 9672-nn6 1998 1–10 88–1069 1–24
G6 – 9672-nn7 1999 1–12 178–1644 5–32

In the course of the generations, CPUs added more instructions and increased performance. The first three generations (G1 to G3) focused on low cost.[58] The 4th generation was aimed at matching the performance of the last bipolar model, the 9021-9X2. It was decided to be accomplished by pursuing high clock frequencies. The G4 could reach 70% higher frequency than the G3 at silicon process parity, but it suffered a 23% IPC reduction from the G3.[58] The initial G4-based models became available in June 1997,[59] but it wasn't until the 370 MHz model RY5 (with a "Modular Cooling Unit") became available at the end of the year that a 9672 would almost match the 141 MHz model 9X2's performance.[62] At 370 MHz it was the second-highest clocked microprocessor at the time, after the Alpha 21164 of DEC. The execution units in each G4 processor are duplicated for the purpose of error detection and correction.[63] Arriving in late September 1998,[64] the G5 more than doubled the performance over any previous IBM mainframe,[60][61] and restored IBM's performance lead that had been lost to Hitachi's Skyline mainframes in 1995.[65][66] The G5 operated at up to 500 MHz, again second only to the DEC Alphas into early 1999. The G5 also added support for the IEEE 754 floating-point formats.[67][68] The thousandth G5 system shipped less than 100 days after the manufacturing began; the greatest ramping of production in S/390's history.[69] In late May 1999 the G6 arrived featuring copper interconnects, raising the frequency to 637 MHz, higher than the fastest DEC machines at the time.

Other

[edit]

In September 1996 IBM launched the S/390 Multiprise 2000, positioned below the 9672.[70][71][72] It used the same technology as the 9672 G3, but it fit half as many processors (up to five) and its off-chip caches were smaller. The 9672 G3 and the Multiprise 2000 were the last versions to support pre-XA System/370 mode. In October 1997 models of Multiprise 2000 with an 11% higher performance were launched.[73] The Multiprise 3000, based on the 9672 G5, became available in September 1999, featuring PCI buses.[74][75]

The S/390 Integrated Server, an even lower-end S/390 system than Multiprise, shipped by the end of 1998. It emerged from a line of S/390-compatibility/coprocessor cards for PCs, but is a true S/390 system capable of server duties, having relegated the Pentium II to the role of an I/O coprocessor. It was the first S/390 server to support PCI. It had the same performance and 256 MB maximum memory capacity as the 7 years older low-end 9221 model 170.[76][77]

From 1997 IBM also offered a "S/390 Application StarterPak", intended as a software development kit for developing and testing mainframe software.[78]

See also

[edit]
IBM mainframes
Preceded by
Late IBM System/370
(IBM 3090, 4300 and 9370 series)
 IBM System/390
1990 - 2000
ES/9000
1990-1994 		9672
Parallel Transaction Server
9673
Parallel Query Server
1994 		9672
Parallel Enterprise Server
1994-2000 		Multiprise
1996-2000 		Integrated Server
1998-2000
Succeeded by

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ S/390 was also used on earlier and subsequent machines.
  2. ^ Lower case "M"
  3. ^ Also Summit, a codename first denied[12] and later seemingly mentioned by IBM.[13]
  4. ^ As explained by IBM,[22] the MIPS ratings are varying estimates. Besides 468 MIPS,[23][24][25] ratings of 465,[26][27] 467,[28] 475,[29] 480,[30][31] 484.5,[32] and 485[33] MIPS exist. IBM's own publication also implies 485 MIPS,[34] but later IBM rated it 510 MIPS.[35] For different workloads different ratings exist, calculated from IBM's LSPR ratings, which can change with OS and microcode updates.[27] Hence confusion.[36] The rated MIPS should also not be confused with the theoretical maximum sustainable MIPS, which is 2817 for model 9X2.
  5. ^ ESCON count was initially up to 36.[16]
  6. ^ ESCON count was initially up to 20.[16]
  7. ^ The combined capacity of the main memory and expanded storage is 512 MB.
  8. ^ a b Initial capacity. Increase to 1+7 GB was scheduled for March 1994.
  9. ^ a b Initial capacity. Increase to 0.5+3.5 GB was scheduled for March 1994.
  10. ^ ESA Option available from July 1991
  11. ^ As warned by IBM, the MIPS ratings mostly are varying estimates by third parties.[22] These are not comparable with RISC-vendors' MIPS claims.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Family 9672+07 IBM S/390 Generation 6 Servers: Engines for e-business". IBM. 22 September 2010.
  2. ^ "IBM SYSTEM/390 OVERVIEW: A NEW ERA BEGINS". Announcement Letters. IBM. September 5, 1990. 190-123. Retrieved November 25, 2021.
  3. ^ "IBM ES/9000 PROCESSOR OVERVIEW". Announcement Letters. IBM. September 5, 1990. 190-124. Retrieved November 25, 2021.
  4. ^ "System/390 Announcement". IBM Archives. IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
  5. ^ a b "ES/9000 Characteristics". IBM Archives. IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
  6. ^ a b c d e "Enterprise System/9000". IBM Archives. IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
  7. ^ Enterprise Systems Architecture/390 Principles of Operation (PDF) (Ninth ed.). IBM. June 2003. p. 1-1. SA22-7201-08. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
  8. ^ Enterprise Systems Architecture/390 Common I/O-Device Commands, Second Edition, IBM, April 1992, SA22-7204-01
  9. ^ "S/390 Parallel Enterprise Server". IBM. 23 January 2003.
  10. ^ Accommodate functions for the z13 server to be discontinued on future servers
  11. ^ "Announcement Letter Number C90-015 dated September 5, 1990". IBM. September 5, 1990.
  12. ^ "You can call me Ray, and you can call me Jay, but don't ever call me Summit!". Computerworld. 10 September 1990. p. 2.
  13. ^ a b Hamilton, Rosemary (September 16, 1991). "IBM turns up pressure to move to ES/9000". Computerworld. Vol. 25, no. 37. p. 131. The high-end Models 820, 860 and 900 use new generation, or Summit, technology and will be generally available this week, said [IBM senior vice president Carl] Conti.
  14. ^ Liptay, John S. (July 1992). "Design of the IBM Enterprise System/9000 high-end processor" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 36 (4): 713–731. doi:10.1147/rd.364.0713. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 17, 2005.
  15. ^ a b Enterprise System/9000 Models 520, 640, 660, 740, 820, and 900 Functional Characteristics and Configuration Guide (PDF). IBM. September 1991. GA22-7139-02.
  16. ^ a b c d e "ES/9000 Reference guide" (PDF). IBM. GU20-0088.
  17. ^ "IBM Enterprise System/9000 Introducing a new computing family" (PDF). IBM. The ES/9000 family's 18 models - successors to the proven IBM Enterprise System families ES/9370, ES/4381, and ES/3090 - provide a solid foundation for increased computing performance and function. The family's performance range spans a 100-fold growth from the compact, rack-mounted Model 120 to the powerful Model 900.
  18. ^ a b "Ten New IBM ES/9000 Water-Cooled Processors, Including Seven-Way and Eight-Way Processors, Associated Upgrades, and Additional Functions". IBM. February 9, 1993.
  19. ^ "Processor Capacity Planning: LSPR Workload Sensitivities" (PDF). IBM. 1999.
  20. ^ "Announcement Letter Number C93-002 dated February 9, 1993". IBM. February 9, 1993.
  21. ^ a b "IBM INTRODUCES FIVE NEW CMOS-BASED ES/9000s". IBM. April 5, 1994. Archived from the original on 18 October 1996.
  22. ^ a b "Large Systems Performance Reference [part 1]" (PDF). IBM. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2001. There are many published sources of processor capacity data available in the industry today. Most of these sources provide data in the form of MIPS tables. MIPS tables available from consultants and industry watchers are not based on independent measurements. Rather, they typically are developed using manufacturer's announced performance claims. Over time, some of these MIPS tables may include a subjective analysis of feedback from various customers of these systems.
  23. ^ Stammbach, Peter (30 August 2001). "Linux powered by zSeries 900" (PDF). IBM Switzerland. p. 5.
  24. ^ Miller, Rick (2 August 2000). "Information Technology Services, Including Telecommunication Services - Potential Sources Sought". p. 4.
  25. ^ Stedman, Craig (24 April 1995). "Hitachi: Users to pay heavy price for IBM's software". Computerworld. p. 81.
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  27. ^ a b Watson, Cheryl. "Why your CPU capacity may not match your vendor's estimate".
  28. ^ "Hardware Ratings" (PDF). December 18, 2008. p. 115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 November 2022.
  29. ^ "Used IBM Mainframe Spot Prices". Infoperspectives. No. 12 (volume 19). November 1998. p. 17.
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  31. ^ Augusto Ornelas Filho (Spring 1999). "SISBACEN – CENTRAL BANK INFORMATION SYSTEM: AN INSTRUMENT FOR IMPLEMENTING BRAZIL'S EXCHANGE POLICY".
  32. ^ "Cheryl Watson's Tuning Letter" (PDF). 1998. pp. 16, 17, 24.
  33. ^ Sandner, Günther; Spengler, Hans (2006). "Die Entwicklung der Datenverarbeitung von Hollerith Lochkartenmaschinen zu IBM Enterprise-Servern" (PDF) (in German). p. 114 (p. 115 of pdf).
  34. ^ "System/390 Parallel Sysplex Performance". IBM. December 1998. p. 64.
    422/0.87 = 485 MIPS
  35. ^ Fitch, John L. (March 2004). "LSPR Background: zSeries Capacity Planning" (PDF). IBM. p. 18.
  36. ^ "Subject: Processor Speed- C. Watson CPU chart".
  37. ^ "IBM ES/9000 Water-Cooled Processor Enhancements: New Ten-Way Processor, Parallel Sysplex Capability, and Additional Functions". IBM. April 6, 1994.
  38. ^ Stedman, Craig (18 April 1994). "IBM's parallel mainframes take center stage". Computerworld. p. 89.
  39. ^ "Announcement Overview April 6, 1994". IBM. April 6, 1994.
  40. ^ "NEW IBM ENTERPRISE SYSTEM/9000 AND ES/3090-9000T WATER-COOLED PROCESSOR MODELS AND ASSOCIATED UPGRADES". IBM. September 5, 1990.
  41. ^ "Enterprise System.9000 Models 330, 340, 500, 580, 620 and 720 Functional Characteristics and Configuration Guide" (PDF). IBM. September 1991. GA22-7138-01.
  42. ^ a b Ambrosio, Johanna (24 February 1992). "IBM users welcome early shipments". Computerworld. p. 61.
  43. ^ "IBM RELEASE NEW ES/9000". Computer Business Review archive at Tech Monitor. August 10, 1993.
  44. ^ Curran, B. W.; Walz, M.H. (1991). "IBM Enterprise System/9000 Type 9121 system controller and memory subsystem design". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 35 (3). IBM: 357. doi:10.1147/rd.353.0357.
  45. ^ "IBM ANNOUNCEMENTS". Computer Business Review archive at Tech Monitor. October 9, 1991. Note that the "Mb" here means megabyte, not megabit.
  46. ^ a b "IBM HAS 9121, 9221 AS/400-KILLERS; SUMMITS OUT NOW". Computer Business Review archive at Tech Monitor. February 11, 1992.
  47. ^ Announcement Letter Number C93-002 dated February 9, 1993
  48. ^ "IBM DOES A BIT OF INFILLING WITH 9121 MODEL 522". Computer Business Review archive at Tech Monitor. 30 November 1993.
  49. ^ VSE/ESA Turbo Dispatcher Guide and Reference (PDF). IBM. p. 45 (p. 59 of pdf). SC33-6797-00.
  50. ^ Young, John L. "Exploring IBM's New Age Mainframes" (PDF). p. 34 (p.41 of pdf).
  51. ^ IBM Corporation (23 January 2003). "1976". IBM Archives: 1970s. Archived from the original on January 17, 2005. Retrieved Sep 20, 2018.
  52. ^ "Processor Resource/Systems Manager Planning Guide" (PDF). IBM. May 1991. GA22-7123-05.
  53. ^ "ENHANCEMENTS FOR ES/9000 PROCESSOR MODELS 520, 640, 660, 740, 820, 860, AND 900". IBM. 16 June 1992.
  54. ^ "Announcement Overview April 6, 1994". IBM. April 6, 1994.
  55. ^ "Parallel Enterprise Server". PC Magazine Encyclopedia. Retrieved Sep 19, 2018.
  56. ^ Elliott, Jim (2004-08-17). "The Evolution of IBM Mainframes and VM" (PDF). SHARE Session 9140. Retrieved 2007-10-21. Slide 28: "9672 to zSeries".
  57. ^ "S/390 Parallel Enterprise Server Announcement". IBM. 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on March 11, 2005. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
  58. ^ a b Webb, Charles F.; Liptay, John S. (July 1997). "A high-frequency custom CMOS S/390 microprocessor" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 41 (4/5): 463–473. doi:10.1147/rd.414.0463. ISSN 0018-8646. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-17.
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  60. ^ a b "OS/390 V1 R1 LSPR ITR ratios for IBM processors". IBM. Archived from the original on 8 June 2001.
  61. ^ a b "OS/390 V2 R4 LSPR ITR ratios for IBM processors". IBM. Archived from the original on 8 June 2001.
  62. ^ The performance gap between the 9X2 and RY5 reduced over time, as the OS and software were updated; at OS/390 V1 R1, the 9X2's advantage was 8%,[60] but at V2 R4 it was 4%.[61]
  63. ^ Spainhower, Lisa; Gregg, Thomas A. "G4: A Fault-Tolerant CMOS Mainframe" (PDF). IBM.
  64. ^ "Family 9672+06 IBM System/390 Parallel Enterprise Server - Generation 5 IBM United States Sales Manual". IBM. 30 June 2009.
  65. ^ "IBM'S NEW G5 PROCESSES OVER 1B INTRUCTIONS PER SECOND". HPCwire. July 31, 1998. "This is the first time for a long time that IBM has recaptured the performance lead — and I don't see that Hitachi will catch them."
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  69. ^ "A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE IBM ES/9000, SYSTEM/390 AND zSERIES" (PDF). IBM.
  70. ^ Smith, Norris Parker (September 13, 1996). "IBM'S NEW CMOS JUNIOR MAINFRAME TARGETS UNIX AND NT MARKETS". HPCwire.
  71. ^ "New S/390 Multiprise 2000 Servers". IBM. September 10, 1996.
  72. ^ "IBM highlights 1996-1999" (PDF). IBM. November 2004. p. 2.
  73. ^ "New S/390 Multiprise 2000 Models". IBM. October 7, 1997.
  74. ^ "IBM System/390 Multiprise 3000 Enterprise Server: Cost-Effective Platform". IBM. September 20, 1999.
  75. ^ Fellows, William (September 19, 1999). "IBM Unveils Planter Follow-On to Multiprise Mainframes". Computer Business Review archive at Tech Monitor.
  76. ^ "IBM System/390 Integrated Server: A Cost-Effective Platform". IBM. 8 September 1998. The S/390 Integrated Server is for customers who do not require the I/O bandwidth and performance of the S/390 Multiprise.
  77. ^ Prickett Morgan, Timothy (February 22, 1999). "IBM RUMORED TO REPLACE MULTIPRISE WITH I-SERVER". [...] S/390 Integrated Server, which turned the PC-based P/390 into a full-fledged member of the S/390 family. This machine, which was supposed to ship in volume in early November, started shipping in late December [...]
  78. ^ "S/390 Application StarterPak Hardware Announcement". IBM. September 30, 1997.
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