[go: nahoru, domu]
Wikipedia

Prostitution in India

Prostitution is legal in India,[1] but a number of related activities including soliciting, kerb crawling, owning or managing a brothel, prostitution in a hotel,[2] child prostitution, pimping and pandering[3] are illegal.[4][5] There are, however, many brothels illegally operating in Indian cities including Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Pune, and Nagpur, among others.[6][7][8] UNAIDS estimate there were 657,829 prostitutes in the country as of 2016.[9] Other unofficial estimates have calculated India has roughly 3 million prostitutes.[10][11] India is widely regarded as having one of the world's largest commercial sex industry.[12][13][14][15] It has emerged as a global hub of sex tourism, attracting sex tourists from wealthy countries.[15][13][16][17] The sex industry in India is a multi-billion dollar one, and one of the fastest growing.[18][19][20]

Legal status of prostitution across Asia.
  Prostitution legal and regulated
  Prostitution (the exchange of sex for money) legal, but organized activities such as brothels and pimping are illegal; prostitution is not regulated
  Prostitution illegal
  No data

History

edit

A tawaif was a courtesan who catered to the nobility of India, particularly during the Mughal era. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradition,[21] and were considered an authority on etiquette. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards[22] and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century.[23] They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms[24] and then emergence of modern Indian cinema.

Goa was a colony in Portuguese India set up in the early 16th century, and this Portuguese stronghold contained a community of Portuguese slaves. During the late 16th and 17th centuries the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves resulted in traders from the Portuguese Empire and their captive lascar crew members from South Asia bringing Japanese slaves to Goa. These were usually young Japanese women and girls brought or captured from Japan as sexual slaves.[25]

The culture of the performing art of nautch, an alluring style of popular dance, rose to prominence during the later period of Mughal Empire and the rule of the British East India Company.[26] During the period of Company rule (and after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the direct administration of the British Crown), British colonial officials established and maintained brothels across the Indian subcontinent. The prostitutes who worked in such brothels were recruited from rural Indian families and paid directly by the British authorities. The red-light districts of cities such as Mumbai developed at this time.[27] The governments of many Indian princely states had regulated prostitution in India prior to the 1860s. The British Raj enacted the Cantonment Act of 1864 to regulate prostitution in colonial India as a matter of accepting a necessary evil.[28] The Cantonment Acts regulated and structured prostitution in the British military bases which provided for about twelve to fifteen Indian women kept in brothels called chaklas for each British regiment stationed in India. They were licensed by military officials and were allowed to consort with soldiers only.[29] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, thousands of women and girls from continental Europe and Japan were trafficked into British India, where they worked as prostitutes servicing British colonists and local Indian men.[30][31][32]

"From time immemorial Indian poets have sung praises of the 'public woman', the professional entertainer. The epics give us a colourful description of her intimate connection with royal splendour. The Puranas highlight her auspicious presence as a symbol of good luck. Buddhist literature also testifies to the high esteem in which she was held in society. She appears through the ages in different incarnations from apsara in divine form to ganika, devdasi, nartika [ordinary dancer], kanchani, tawaif and the nautch girl."

— Pran Nevile[33]

Japanese prostitutes (the Karayuki-san) serviced British colonialists in British India where they were viewed as clean.[34][35][36]

Operations and modus operandi

edit

Prostitution in India manifests in various forms. The most notable instances where sex workers offer their services may include situations where these services are accessible under different disguises:

  • Brothels:[6][7] Buildings in which prostitutes are available.
  • Streetwalkers/Street prostitution:[37] Prostitutes who stand or walk in the streets, roads, highways or public spaces to get customers.
  • Call girls:[38] Prostitutes with whom an appointment can be made by telephone, usually to meet at the client's address.
  • Escort agencies:[39] An agency where people, especially young women, may be hired to accompany someone for entertainment, etc.
  • Private residences:[40] The place, especially the house, in which a person lives or resides.
  • Massage & spa parlors:[41][42] A place where people go and pay for a massage.
  • Hotels:[43] A commercial establishment offering lodging facilities.
  • Nightclubs and bars:[44] A place of entertainment open at night usually serving food and liquor and providing music and space for dancing and often having a floor show.
  • Virtual sex, Cybersex and Phone sex services on online and on digital platforms:[45][46] Online/phone-based sex-oriented conversations and exchanges through audio, images, video or texts.
  • Devdasi, temple dancers devoted to the practice of spiritual dancing but are forced into sex work.[47]

Organisation

edit

Government organisations like MDACS (Maharashtra District AIDS Control Society) have played a very prominent role in generating awareness on HIV/AIDS, through the assistance in providing free literature and organising street campaigns. There are several NGOs that work to prevent the spread of STI/STDs in the community. NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation), a government agency leads these NGOs.[48] The Durbar Mahila Sumanwua Committee is a sex-workers' union based in Sonagachi, Kolkata, which has 65,000 members. They advocate for labour rights for sex workers, and they also fight against trafficking.[49]

Prevalence

edit

There were an estimated two million female sex workers in the country in 1997.[50] In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development reported the presence of over 3 million female sex workers in India, with 35.47 percent of them entering the trade before the age of 18 years.[51][52] The number of prostitutes rose by 50% between 1997 and 2004.[53]

Underage prostitution

edit
Main article: Child trafficking in India

Surveys show there are an estimated 1.2 million children involved in prostitution.[54]

Research

edit

Much new knowledge on sex work in India came from the first major survey, in April 2011.[55] This was performed by the Centre for Advocacy on Stigma and Marginalisation (CASAM), which is part of SANGRAM,[56] a major NGO that deals with sex workers.

Red-light districts of India

edit
 
A lane in Kamathipura, a red light district in Mumbai.
 
A brothel in Kamathipura
 
A scene in Sonagachi, Kolkata's red light district, 2005.

India's largest and best-known red-light districts are:


The operation of brothels is officially prohibited (de jure), yet in practice, these establishments are confined to specific areas within urban locales. Despite the lack of official sanction for brothels, minimal efforts are exerted to eradicate or impede its existence. The living conditions within these establishments are notably substandard, marked by dilapidated infrastructure, insufficient lighting, malodorous environments, uncleanliness, and an overall lack of sanitation. Notably, the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, is exceptionally high in these establishments and the services provided within these brothels are usually available at a notably cheap price. The environment in the brothels, particularly in the surrounding alleys, is deemed hazardous, especially during the night, with reports of various other forms of criminal activities.

edit

The law is vague on prostitution itself.[68] The primary law dealing with the status of sex workers is the 1956 law referred to as The Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act (ITSA). According to this law, prostitutes can practise their trade privately but cannot legally solicit customers in public.[1] A BBC article, however, mentions that prostitution is illegal in India; the Indian law does not refer to the practice of selling one's own sexual service as "prostitution".[4] Clients can be punished for sexual activity in proximity to a public place. Organised prostitution (brothels, prostitution rings, pimping, etc.) is illegal. As long as it is done individually and voluntarily, a woman (male prostitution is not recognised in any law in India) can use her body in exchange for material benefit. In particular, the law forbids a sex worker to carry on her profession within 200 yards of a public place. Unlike as is the case with other professions, sex workers are not protected under normal labour laws, but they possess the right to rescue and rehabilitation if they desire, and they possess all the rights of other citizens.[citation needed]

In practice ITSA is not commonly used. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) which predates the ITSA is often used to charge sex workers with vague crimes such as "public indecency" or being a "public nuisance" without explicitly defining what these consist of. In 1986 the old law was amended as the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act or ITPA. Attempts to amend this to criminalise clients[69] have been opposed by the Health Ministry,[70] and has encountered considerable opposition.[71] In a positive development in the improvement of the lives of female sex workers in Calcutta, a state-owned insurance company has provided life insurance to 250 individuals.[72]

Over the years, India saw a growing mandate to legalise prostitution, to avoid exploitation of sex workers and their children by middlemen and in the wake of a growing HIV/AIDS menace.[73][74][75]

Supreme Court of India; on May 19, 2022, upheld that everyone, including sex workers are guaranteed the right to dignity and life under Article 21 of Constitution of India.[76] [77] Thus, sex workers can not be harassed and arrested legally. Brothel related practices still remain illegal.[77][76]

Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act

edit

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, or ITPA, also called the Prevention of Immoral Trafficking Act (PITA) is a 1986 amendment of legislation passed in 1956 as a result of the signing by India of the United Nations' declaration in 1950 in New York on the suppression of trafficking.[78] The act, then called the All India Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act (SITA), was amended to the current law. The laws were intended as a means of limiting and eventually abolishing prostitution in India by gradually criminalising various aspects of sex work. The main points of the PITA are as follows:[78]

  • Sex Workers: A prostitute who seduces or solicits shall be prosecuted. Similarly, call girls can not publish phone numbers to the public (imprisonment up to 6 months with fine, point 8). Sex workers are also punished for prostitution near any public place or notified area (imprisonment of up to 3 months with fine, point 7).
  • Clients: A client is guilty of consorting with prostitutes and can be charged if he engages in sex acts with a sex worker within 200 yards of a public place or "notified area" (imprisonment of up to 3 months, point 7). The client may also be punished if the sex worker is below 18 years of age (from 7 to 10 years of imprisonment, no matter the age of the minor, point 7).
  • Pimps : Pimps or live-in lovers who live off a prostitute's earnings are guilty of a crime. Any adult male living with a prostitute is assumed to be guilty unless he can prove otherwise (imprisonment of up to 2 years with fine, point 4).
  • Brothel: Landlords and brothel-keepers can be prosecuted, maintaining a brothel is illegal (from 1 to 3 years' imprisonment with fine for first offence, point 3). Detaining someone at a brothel for the purpose of sexual exploitation can lead to prosecution (imprisonment of more than 7 years, point 6). Prostitution in a hotel is also a criminal offence.[2]
  • Procuring and trafficking: A person who procures or attempts to procure anybody is liable to be punished. A person who moves a person from one place to another (human trafficking) can be prosecuted similarly (7 years' imprisonment with fine for first conviction, and up to life imprisonment thereafter, point 5B).
  • Rescued Women: The government is legally obligated to provide rescue and rehabilitation in a "protective home" for any sex worker requesting assistance (point 21).

A "public place" in context of this law includes places of public religious worship, educational institutions, hostels, hospitals etc. A "notified area" is a place which is declared to be "prostitution-free" by the state government under the PITA. "Brothel" in context of this law, is a place which has two or more sex workers (2a). Prostitution itself is not an offence under this law, but soliciting, brothels, madams and pimps are illegal.[79]

edit

In 2006 the Ministry of Women and Child Development put forward a bill aimed at reducing human trafficking.[80] The bill proposed criminalising the clients of trafficked prostitutes. However, it stalled during the legislative process, and legislation against human trafficking was subsequently effected by amendments to the Indian Penal Code.[81]

Clauses in the ITPA relating to living off the earnings of a sex-worker are being challenged in court, together with criminalisation of brothels, prostitution around a notified public place, soliciting and the power given to a magistrate to evict sex-workers from their home and forbidding their re-entry. Other groups are lobbying parliament for amendments to the law.[82][83]

In 2009 the Supreme Court ruled that prostitution should be legalised and convened a panel to consider amending the law.[68] In 2011 the Supreme Court held that "right to live with dignity" is a Constitutional right and issued an order relating to "creating conditions conducive for sex workers to work with dignity". The court directed the Central Government, States and Union Territories to carry out a survey to determine the number of sex workers in the country willing to be rehabilitated.

However, in 2012 the Central Government made a plea to the Supreme Court arguing that sex workers should not be allowed to pursue their trade under the constitutional "right to live with dignity". Government counsel contended that any such endorsement by the court would be ultra vires of ITPA, which totally bans prostitution. Opposing counsel submitted that the Act only prohibited brothel activities and punitive action against pimps. The Supreme Court agreed to examine the plea.[84]

Reasons for entry

edit
 
An American GI and prostitutes in Calcutta in 1945

Most of the research done by the development organisation Sanlaap indicates that the majority of sex workers in India work as prostitutes due to lacking resources to support themselves or their children. Most do not choose this profession but out of necessity, often after the breakup of a marriage or after being disowned and thrown out of their homes by their families. The children of sex workers are much more likely to get involved in this kind of work as well. A survey completed in 1988 by the All Bengal Women's Union interviewed a random sample of 160 sex workers in Calcutta: Of those, 23 claimed that they had come of their own accord, whereas the remaining 137 women claimed to have been introduced into the sex trade by agents. The breakdown was as follows:

  • Neighbour in connivance with parents: 7
  • Neighbours as pimps (guardians not knowing): 19
  • Aged sex workers from same village or locality: 31
  • Unknown person/accidental meeting with pimp: 32
  • Mother/sister/near relative in the profession: 18
  • Lover giving false hope of marriage or job and selling to brothel: 14
  • Close acquaintance giving false hope of marriage or job: 11
  • "Husband" (not legally married): 3
  • Husband (legally married): 1
  • Young college student selling to brothel and visiting free of cost: 1

The breakdown of the agents by sex were as follows: 76% of the agents were female and 24% were males. Over 80% of the agents bring young women into the profession were known people and not traffickers: neighbours, relatives, etc.

Also prevalent in parts of Bengal is the Chukri System, whereby a female is coerced into prostitution to pay off debts, as a form of bonded labour. In this system, the prostitute generally works without pay for one year or longer to repay a supposed debt to the brothel owner for food, clothes, make-up and living expenses. In India, the Government's "central sponsored scheme" provides financial or in-kind grants to released bonded labourers and their family members, the report noted, adding over 2,850,000 people have benefited to date. Almost 5,000 prosecutions have been recorded so far under the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act of 1976.

Some women and girls are by tradition born into prostitution to support the family. The Bachara Tribe,[85] for example, follow this tradition with eldest daughters often expected to be prostitutes.

Over 40% of 484 prostituted girls rescued during major raids of brothels in Mumbai in 1996 were from Nepal.[86] In India one estimate calculated that as many as 200,000 Nepalese girls, many under the age of 14, were sold into sexual slavery during the 1990s.[87]

Sex worker health

edit
Further information: HIV/AIDS in India

Sex workers in India find it difficult to access health care and face discrimination, especially in government hospitals, based on their profession, such as being forced to take tests for sexually transmitted infection when they are ill, being refused to be admitted to hospitals without HIV tests, being refused to conduct physical examination before prescribing medication. Surveys have found that sex workers prefer private health care providers over the government ones where they have some kind of sensitisation training. Difficulty in accessing health care is due to factors such as hospitals sending women to their husband for approval to get abortion, financial hurdles such as high fees for abortion and difficulty procuring identification documents as many sex workers live unstable lives, having trouble providing a proof of address. A Supreme Court verdict in 2021 directed that sex workers be provided Aadhar and ration without asking for proof of address, which made the situation better for sex workers. In government hospitals, sometimes it is not even doctors who do abortions for sex workers, but ward boys will do. Sex workers also lack privacy in hospitals because people think they are okay with anybody looking at their private parts. Transgender sex workers face even more discrimination than women sex workers due to doctors' lack of knowledge of transperson bodies, hospitals not having separate queues for transpeople and hospitals not assigning them doctors but rather rush them to testing centres. [88]

Mumbai and Kolkata (Calcutta) have the country's largest brothel based sex industry, with over 100,000 sex workers in Mumbai.[89] It is estimated that HIV among prostitutes have largely fallen, in last decade.[90]

A positive outcome of a prevention programme among prostitutes can be found in Sonagachi, a red-light district in Kolkata. The education programme targeted about 5,000 female prostitutes. A team of two peer workers carried out outreach activities including education, condom promotion and follow-up of STI cases. When the project was launched in 1992, 27% of sex workers reported condom use. By 1995 this had risen to 82%, and in 2001 it was 86%.

Reaching women who are working in brothels has proven to be quite difficult due to the sheltered and secluded nature of the work, where pimps, Mashis, and brothel-keepers often control access to the women and prevent their access to education, resulting in a low to modest literacy rate for many sex workers.

Not only HIV but other infection diseases have been decreased, examined data from 868 prevention projects—serving about 500,000 female sex workers—implemented between 1995 and 2008. The research found that reaching sex workers through prevention programs decreased HIV and syphilis infection rates among young pregnant women tested routinely at government prenatal health clinics.[91]

Foreign prostitutes

edit

Women and girls from Azerbaijan, Russia, Uzbekistan, Philippines[92] Arab countries, Japan,[93] the former Soviet Republics, Bangladesh,[94] Sri Lanka[95] and from other origins have been noted as working as prostitutes in India.

In 2015, ten Thai women were arrested in India on prostitution charges for allegedly running two brothels masquerading as massage parlours.[96]

In 2013 there were reports of Afghan women being trafficked as prostitutes to India.[97]

Uzbek women go to India to work as prostitutes.[98][99][100]

Sex trafficking

edit
See also: Human trafficking in India

India is a source, destination, and transit country for women and children subjected to sex trafficking. Most of India's trafficking problem is internal, and those from the most disadvantaged social strata—economically, members of tribal communities—are most vulnerable. Thousands of unregulated work placement agencies reportedly lure adults and children under false promises of employment into sex trafficking.[101]

Experts estimate millions of women and children are victims of sex trafficking in India. Traffickers use false promises of employment or arrange sham marriages within India or Gulf states and subject women and girls to sex trafficking. In addition to traditional red light districts, women and children increasingly endure sex trafficking in small hotels, vehicles, huts, and private residences. Traffickers increasingly use websites, mobile applications, and online money transfers to facilitate commercial sex. Children continue to be subjected to sex trafficking in religious pilgrimage centers and by foreign travelers in tourist destinations. Many women and girls, predominately from Nepal and Bangladesh, and from Central Asia, Africa, and Asia, including Rohingya and other minority populations from Burma, are subjected to sex trafficking in India. Prime destinations for both Indian and foreign female trafficking victims include Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Gujarat, Hyderabad, and along the India-Nepal border; Nepali women and girls are increasingly subjected to sex trafficking in Assam, and other cities such as Nagpur and Pune. Some corrupt law enforcement officers protect suspected traffickers and brothel owners from law enforcement efforts, take bribes from sex trafficking establishments and sexual services from victims, and tip off sex traffickers to impede rescue efforts. Some Nepali, Bangladeshi, Afghan, and Pakistani women and girls are subjected to both labor and sex trafficking in major Indian cities.[102] Following the 2015 Nepal earthquakes, Nepali women who transit through India are increasingly subjected to trafficking in the Middle East and Africa.[101]

The United States Department of State Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons ranks India as a 'Tier 2' country.[101]

edit

Prostitution has been a theme in Indian literature and arts for centuries. Mrichakatika, a ten-act Sanskrit play, was written by Śhudraka in the 2nd century BC, and tells the story of a famous courtesan, Vasantsena. It was made into Utsav, a 1984 Hindi film. Amrapali (Ambapali), the legendary nagarvadhu, or royal courtesan of the Kingdom of Vaishali, famously became an enlightened Buddhist monk later in her life - a story retold in a Hindi film, Amrapali (1966).[103]

The tawaif, or elite courtesan in the Mughal era, has been a theme of a number of films, including Pakeezah (1972), Umrao Jaan (1981), Tawaif (1985), Kama Sutra: A Tale of Love (1996) and Umrao Jaan (2006). Other movies depicting lives of prostitutes and dancing girls are Sharaabi (1984), Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1985), Amar Prem (1972), Mausam (1975) Mandi (1983), Devdas (2002), Chandni Bar (2001), Chameli (2003), Laaga Chunari Mein Daag, Sadak (2007), Dev D (2009), B.A. Pass (2013), Thira (2013) and Begum Jaan (2017).

Various fictional films have featured the subject of prostitution in India, including Slumdog Millionaire (2008),[104] Chaarfutiya Chhokare (2014), Manoranjan (1974), Soothradharan (2001), Calcutta News (2008), Lakshmi (2014),[105] Love Sonia (2018), Gangubai Kathiawadi (2022) among others.

Born into Brothels, a 2004 American documentary film about the children of prostitutes in Sonagachi, Kolkata, won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature in 2004.[106]

Delhi-based woman film maker Shohini Ghosh made a documentary film "Tales of the Night Fairies" in 2002, interviewing five sex workers who are activists of the DMSC sex-worker union in Kolkata. DMSC fights against trafficking and advocates for labour rights for sex-workers.[107]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b "The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956". wcd.nic.in. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  2. ^ a b "Section 7 in The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956". indiankanoon.org. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  3. ^ "2008 Human Rights Reports: India". U.S. Department of State. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  4. ^ a b "India court raises question of legalising prostitution". BBC News. 10 December 2009.
  5. ^ "Sex Work Law - Countries". Sexuality, Poverty and Law. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Top 10 Red Light Areas In India". zeenews.india.com/. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bhattacharya, Rohit (22 December 2023). "Top 15 Largest Red Light Areas In India: Explore Near Your Location". scoopwhoop.com/. ScoopWhoop Media Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  8. ^ Magdalena Rojas (12 June 2016). "In Kamathipura's lanes, legalisation of prostitution seems like a faraway debate". firstpost.com. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  9. ^ "Sex workers: Population size estimate - Number, 2016". www.aidsinfoonline.org. UNAIDS. Archived from the original on 4 June 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  10. ^ "How Many Prostitutes Are in the United States and the Rest of the World?". Prostitution.procon.org. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  11. ^ Friedman, R.I. India’s shame: Sexual slavery and political corruption are leading to an AIDS catastrophe. Trends Organ Crim 3, 60–62 (1998). doi:10.1007/s12117-998-1059-x
  12. ^ Dalla, Rochelle L.; Kreimer, Lee M. (13 October 2016). ""After Your Honor is Gone…": Exploration of Developmental Trajectories and Life Experiences of Women Working in Mumbai's Red-Light Brothel Districts". Sexuality & Culture. 21 (1): 163–186. doi:10.1007/s12119-016-9388-4. ISSN 1095-5143. S2CID 146803616.
  13. ^ a b Chattopadhyay, Amit; McKaig, Rosemary G. (2004). "Social Development of Commercial Sex Workers in India: An Essential Step in HIV/AIDS Prevention". AIDS Patient Care and STDs. 18 (3): 159–168. doi:10.1089/108729104322994847. PMID 15104876.
  14. ^ Prabha Kotiswaran (2011). Dangerous Sex, Invisible Labor: Sex Work and the Law in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 250–350. doi:10.1515/9781400838769. ISBN 978-1-400-83876-9.
  15. ^ a b Huda, S. (2006). "Trafficking, Sex-Trafficking, HIV, AIDS, South Asia". International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. Sex trafficking in South Asia. 94 (3): 374–381. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.04.027. PMID 16846602. S2CID 557597.
  16. ^ Joffres, C., Mills, E., Joffres, M. et al. Sexual slavery without borders: trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation in India. Int J Equity Health 7, 22 (2008). doi:10.1186/1475-9276-7-22
  17. ^ Boruah, Jayanta and Baruah, Masia, Legal Implications of Sex Tourism (3 April 2021). Journal on Jurisprudential Studies Vol 1 Issue 3, Forthcoming, SSRN 3818710
  18. ^ Kole, Subir K. (2009). "From "Veshyas" to "Entertainment Workers": Evolving Discourses of Bodies, Rights, and Prostitution in India". Asian Politics & Policy. 1 (2): 255–281. doi:10.1111/j.1943-0787.2009.01115.x.
  19. ^ Biswajit Ghosh (2009). "Trafficking in women and children in India: nature, dimensions and strategies for prevention". The International Journal of Human Rights. 13 (5). Routledge: 716–738. doi:10.1080/13642980802533109. S2CID 145131069.
  20. ^ Irani Machado da Silva and Anuradha Sathiyaseelan (2019). Luca Cerniglia (ed.). "Emotional needs of women post-rescue from sex trafficking in India". Cogent Psychology. 6 (1). Cogent OA: 1631584. doi:10.1080/23311908.2019.1631584. S2CID 197700400.
  21. ^ "Mapping cultures". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 11 August 2004. Archived from the original on 27 November 2004.
  22. ^ Schoffield, Katherine Butler (April 2012). "The Courtesan Tale: Female Musicians and Dancers in Mughal Historical Chronicles, c.1556–1748". Gender & History. 24 (1): 150–171. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.2011.01673.x. S2CID 161453756.
  23. ^ "Fall of a culture". Tribune India. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
  24. ^ Banerji, Projesh (10 April 1986). Dance in Thumri. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170172123 – via Google Books.
  25. ^ Leupp, Gary P. (2003), Interracial Intimacy in Japan, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 49 & 52, ISBN 978-0-8264-6074-5
  26. ^ "Nautch girls: Sahibs danced to their tune". Retrieved 25 July 2004.
  27. ^ "Horrors of India's brothels documented". BBC News. 23 November 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  28. ^ Tambe, Ashwini (1 April 2005). "The Elusive Ingenue:A transnational Feminist Analysis of European Prostitution in Colonial Bombay". Gender & Society. 19 (2): 160–79. doi:10.1177/0891243204272781. S2CID 144250345.
  29. ^ Bhandari, Sudhanshu (19 June 2010). "Prostitution in Colonial India". Mainstream Weekly. XLVIII (26). Retrieved 13 October 2012.
  30. ^ Fischer-Tiné, Harald (2003), "'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths': European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880-1914", Indian Economic and Social History Review, 40 (2): 163–90, doi:10.1177/001946460304000202, S2CID 146273713
  31. ^ Tambe, Ashwini (2005), "The Elusive Ingénue: A Transnational Feminist Analysis of European Prostitution in Colonial Bombay", Gender & Society, 19 (2): 160–79, doi:10.1177/0891243204272781, S2CID 144250345
  32. ^ Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000), Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives, University of California Press, p. 58, ISBN 978-0-520-22071-3
  33. ^ Nautch Girls of the Raj, Mumbai Mirror, 8 Aug 2010.
  34. ^ Gilmour, David (2018). The British in India: A Social History of the Raj (illustrated ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 331. ISBN 978-0374713249.
  35. ^ Gilmour, David (2018). The British in India: A Social History of the Raj (illustrated ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 207. ISBN 978-0374713249.
  36. ^ Mihalopoulos, Bill (1994). "The Making of Prostitutes in Japan: The Karayuki-San". Social Justice. 21 (2). Social Justice/Global Options: 161–84. JSTOR 29766813.
  37. ^ Batra, Architi (8 February 2020). "Living Conditions Of Sex Workers In India". ylcube.com. YLCube. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  38. ^ Ankita, Kumari. "The Case for and Against the Legalization of Prostitution". legalserviceindia.com/. Legal Service India.com. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  39. ^ Ram Ganesan, Sharmila (2 June 2023). "Behind the scenes of Escort Economy 2.0". timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  40. ^ Patnaik, Shriya (26 November 2020). "THE MISSING LIFE STORIES OF INDIA'S SEX WORKERS". graduateinstitute.ch. GENEVA GRADUATE INSTITUTE. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  41. ^ Mishra, Sukriti (28 November 2022). "Delhi HC Directs Police Commissioner To Prevent Prostitution Under The Guise Of Massage Parlors". lawbeat.in. LawBeat. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  42. ^ Khandekar, Omkar (9 March 2021). "Sex dens or wellness centres? Indian spas struggle for legitimacy". lifestyle.livemint.com. Mintlounge. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  43. ^ Salelkar, Amba (10 August 2015). "This law gave Mumbai police the right to search those hotel rooms". dnaindia.com. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  44. ^ "Escorts Draw Customers To Delhi Bars". theblunttimes.in. The BluntTimes. 10 July 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  45. ^ Nigam, Chayyanika (5 June 2017). "Sex industry takes digital route, teenagers at risk of cyber exploitation". indiatoday.in. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  46. ^ Khandekar, Omkar (22 May 2020). "How sex workers are using technology to service clients during the lockdown". lifestyle.livemint.com. Mintlounge. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  47. ^ Hyslop, Leah (20 September 2010). "India's 'prostitutes of God'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  48. ^ New breed of elite call girls cater to India's rich Archived 29 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine CNN-IBN, 20 September 2008.
  49. ^ "Durbar Mahil Samanwaya Committee (DMSC) - The Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW)". gaatw.org.
  50. ^ Casciani, Dominic (10 December 2009). "India's Supreme Court has asked the government to consider whether it might legalise prostitution if it is unable to curb it effectively". BBC News. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  51. ^ Around 3 mn prostitutes in India Archived 29 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine UNODC, 8 May 2007
  52. ^ BBC report on number of female sex workers in India Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine BBC News.
  53. ^ Prostitution 'increases' in India Archived 9 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine BBC News, 3 July 2006
  54. ^ Dominic. "More than 1M child prostitutes in India". CNN. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
  55. ^ Sahni, Rohini; Shankar, V Kalyan (April 2011). The First Pan-India Survey of Sex Workers (PDF) (Report). The Center for Advocacy on Stigma and Marginalisation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2014.
  56. ^ "SANGRAM". Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  57. ^ Das, Rijula. "Exploring the stories of Asia's largest red-light district". irishtimes.com/. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  58. ^ Bose, Mrityunjay. "Documentary depicts how over 7,000 sex workers in Mumbai..." deccanherald.com/. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  59. ^ Haygunde, Chandan; Kulkarni, Sushant (6 August 2022). "Know Your City: 1045 Budhwar Peth, Margi Galli – Home to Margubai, a dreaded sex racketeer from Pune's red light area". indianexpress.com/. The Indian Express [P] Ltd. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  60. ^ Ravi, Prashant. "Rani Begum, ex-courtesan, now helps heal the lives of her sisters". outlookindia.com/. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  61. ^ "Red Light Areas in India where Sex Workers make a Living". desiblitz.com/. 8 October 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  62. ^ "Delhi's G B road gets first..." The Times of India. January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  63. ^ Shantha, Sukanya. "Nagpur Police Abruptly Shut Down City's Oldest Red Light Area, Damaging Livelihoods of Sex Workers". thewire.in/. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  64. ^ "Gwalior trafficking gang sold over..." The Times of India. 10 January 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  65. ^ Sirohi, Dimple. "मेरठ: देह व्यापार के लिए बदनाम कबाड़ी बाजार की बदलेगी सूरत, हाईकोर्ट ने बंद कराए थे 58 कोठे". amarujala.com/. Amar Ujala Limited. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  66. ^ Irani, Raul (2020). "Prostitutes of Kabari Bazar, Meerut and the Bachchra Community in Neemuch". Antyajaa: Indian Journal of Women and Social Change. 5. SAGE Publications: 78–85. doi:10.1177/2455632720915320. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  67. ^ "Court convicts 41 persons..." The Times of India. 20 January 2022.
  68. ^ a b "Prostitution in India: Make it legal". The Economist. 1 November 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  69. ^ Ratna Kapur (10 September 2007). "Leader Article: Sex Workers Need Legal Cover". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012.
  70. ^ Mahendra Kumar Singh (24 November 2007). "'Sex workers' clients shouldn't be penalised'". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012.
  71. ^ Bishaka Datta; Siddharth Dube (12 December 2007). "Leader Article: Sex Work Is No Crime". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012.
  72. ^ "India sex workers get life cover". BBC News. 1 May 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  73. ^ A mandate to legalise prostitution Archived 15 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Times of India, 25 August 2003.
  74. ^ India's sex trade exposed Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Independent, 29 November 2008.
  75. ^ K Rajasekharan (18 June 2014). "Legalise prostitution in India to address problems of sex industry". Economy Lead. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  76. ^ a b Correspondent, Legal (26 May 2022). "Supreme Court wants full respect for sex workers: counsel". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 23 August 2022. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  77. ^ a b "'Sex work legal', Supreme Court gives historic judgement on prostitution". Zee News. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  78. ^ a b "The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956". Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008. The Immoral traffic Prevention Act
  79. ^ "Prostitution in India Legal provisions". Indian Laws Guide. 16 February 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  80. ^ "The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Amendment Bill, 2006" (PDF). Ministry Of Women & Child Development. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  81. ^ Hemchhaya De (23 October 2013). "Is Consensual Sex Work A Crime?". The Telegraph. Calcutta. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  82. ^ "Sex workers rue discrimination against their children". Deccan Herald. 6 March 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  83. ^ Sex Workers Meet Law Makers (PDF) (Report). Constitution Club, New Delhi: Lawyers Collective. 1 March 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
  84. ^ "Sex workers cannot operate in any manner, Centre tells SC". 12 July 2012.
  85. ^ Anuraag Singh (25 February 2014). "Gujarat tribal sells daughter to prostitution racketeers in MP, held". Times of India.
  86. ^ "S. Asia Urged to Unite Against Child Prostitution", Reuters, 19 June 1998.
  87. ^ Holter, Mikael G. "Fair skin and young looks: Nepalese victims of human trafficking languish in Indian brothels". Archived from the original on 21 December 2007. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  88. ^ Deeksha, Johanna (21 December 2022). "Why Indian sex workers dread going to a hospital". Scroll.in. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  89. ^ "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: India", US State Department, 2001.
  90. ^ ANI (17 June 2013). "HIV prevention programmes for female prostitutes in India highly effective". india.com. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  91. ^ HIV prevention programmes for female prostitutes in India highly effective Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine 17 June 2013
  92. ^ "India". Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. U.S. State Department.
  93. ^ Gregg, Robert (1998). "Unreal cities: Bombay, London, New York" (PDF). Radical History Review. 1998 (70): 131–148. doi:10.1215/01636545-1998-70-131. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2013.
  94. ^ "Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation - Bangladesh". Uri.edu. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2010.
  95. ^ "Meeting Pakistani prostitutes". BBC. 31 August 2009.
  96. ^ "10 Thai women arrested for prostitution in India". Bangkok Post. Jaipur, India. 9 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  97. ^ Syed Nazakat (9 February 2013). "Like cattle, from Kabul". The Week. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  98. ^ "Six Uzbekistan women held for prostitution". indianexpress.com. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  99. ^ "Uzbek woman held for running prostitution racket". The Times of India. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  100. ^ "Three Uzbek women among eight held for prostitution racket". Hindustan Times. 7 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  101. ^ a b c "India 2018 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.Public Domain  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  102. ^ "Iran".
  103. ^ Amprali at IMDb.
  104. ^ Butler, Nicole (13 February 2018). "'Slumdog Millionaire' actress hopes to empower women through her art". WMAZ-TV. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  105. ^ Kamath, Sudhish (14 December 2013). "A fictional account of a true story". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  106. ^ "NY Times: Born into Brothels", Movies & TV Dept., The New York Times, 2007, archived from the original on 28 December 2007, retrieved 23 November 2008
  107. ^ "Tales of the Night Fairies". YouTube. 4 February 2013.

Bibliography

edit
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prostitution in India.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prostitution_in_India&oldid=1254621610"