Editing Chronology of the ancient Near East

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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
[[File:Ancient Orient.png|thumb|Ancient Near East]]
The '''chronology of the ancient Near East''' is a [[chronology|framework of dates]] for various events, rulers and dynasties. Historical inscriptions and texts customarily record events in terms of a succession of officials or rulers: "in the year X of king Y". Comparing many records pieces together a [[relative dating|relative chronology]] relating dates in cities over a wide area.

For the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd]] and [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] millennia BC, this correlation is less certain but the following periods can be distinguished:
<ref>[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0240799] Stuart W. Manning et al., Beyond megadrought and collapse in the Northern Levant: The chronology of Tell Tayinat and two historical inflection episodes, around 4.2ka BP, and following 3.2ka BP, PLOS ONE, October 29, 2020</ref>
*[[Early Bronze Age]]: Following the rise of cuneiform writing in the preceding [[Uruk period]] and [[Jemdet Nasr period]]s came a series of rulers and dynasties whose existence is based mostly on scant contemporary sources (e.g. [[En-me-barage-si]]), combined with archaeological cultures, some of which are considered problematic (e.g. [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic II]]). The lack of dendrochronology, astronomical correlations, and sparsity of modern, well-stratified sequences of radiocarbon dates from Southern Mesopotamia makes it difficult to assign absolute dates to this floating chronology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wencel|first=Maciej Mateusz|date=2017|title=Radiocarbon Dating of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia: Results, Limitations, and Prospects|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033822216000606/type/journal_article|journal=Radiocarbon|language=en|volume=59|issue=2|pages=635–645|doi=10.1017/RDC.2016.60|bibcode=2017Radcb..59..635W |s2cid=133337438|issn=0033-8222|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029010710/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/radiocarbon-dating-of-early-dynastic-mesopotamia-results-limitations-and-prospects/D8F82A41667C5281AABF18B5899CE04E|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Zaina2015" />
*[[Middle Bronze Age]]: Beginning with the [[Akkadian Empire]] around 2300 BC, the chronological evidence becomes internally more consistent. A good picture can be drawn of who succeeded whom, and synchronisms between [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]] and the more robust [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]] can be established. Unlike the previous period there are a variety of data points serving to help turn this floating chronology into a fixed one. These include astronomical events, dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating, and even a volcanic eruption. Despite this no agreement has been reached. The most commonly seen solution is to place the reign of Hammurabi from 1792 to 1750 BC, the "middle chronology", but there is far from a consensus.<ref name="arxiv.org">[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311114.pdf] V.G.Gurzadyan, "Astronomy and the Fall of Babylon", Sky & Telescope, vol. 100, no.1 (July), pp. 40–45, 2000</ref><ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/014ABB912CC50181E0F06E074BE071A2/S0003598X23000303a.pdf/new-evidence-for-middle-bronze-age-chronology-from-the-syro-anatolian-frontier.pdf] Herrmann, Virginia R., et al., "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", Antiquity, pp. 1-20, 2023</ref>
*[[Late Bronze Age]]: The fall of the First Babylonian Empire was followed by a period of chaos where "Late Old Babylonian royal inscriptions are few and the year names become less evocative of political events, early Kassite evidence is even scarcer, and until recently Sealand I sources were near to non-existent".<ref>[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/92651/3/Boivin_Odette_201611_PhD_thesis.pdf] Boivin, O., "The First Dynasty of the Sealand in History and Tradition", Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto Canada, 2016</ref> Afterward came a period of stability with the Assyrian Middle Kingdom, Hittite New Kingdom, and the Third Babylon Dynasty (Kassite).
*The [[Bronze Age collapse]]: A "Dark Age" begins with the fall of Babylonian Dynasty III (Kassite) around 1200 BC, the invasions of the [[Sea Peoples]] and the collapse of the [[Hittite Empire]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05693-y | title=Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 bc | date=2023 | last1=Manning | first1=Sturt W. | last2=Kocik | first2=Cindy | last3=Lorentzen | first3=Brita | last4=Sparks | first4=Jed P. | journal=Nature | volume=614 | issue=7949 | pages=719–724 | pmid=36755095 | pmc=9946833 | bibcode=2023Natur.614..719M }}</ref>
*[[Early Iron Age]]: Around 900 BC, written records once again become more numerous with the rise of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], establishing relatively secure absolute dates. Classical sources such as the [[Canon of Ptolemy]], the works of [[Berossus]], and the [[Hebrew Bible]] provide chronological support and synchronisms. An inscription from the tenth year of Assyrian king [[Ashur-Dan III]] refers to an eclipse of the sun, and astronomical calculations among the range of plausible years date the eclipse to 15 June 763 BC. This can be corroborated by other mentions of astronomical events, and a secure [[Absolute dating|absolute chronology]] established, tying the relative chronologies to the now-dominant [[Gregorian calendar]].

==Variant Middle Bronze Age chronologies==
Due to the sparsity of sources throughout the "Dark Age", the history of the Near Eastern [[Middle Bronze Age]] down to the end of the [[First Babylonian Dynasty]] is founded on a floating or relative chronology. There have been attempts to anchor the chronology using records of eclipses and other methods such as [[dendrochronology]] and [[radiocarbon dating]], but none of those dates is widely supported.

Currently the major schools of thought on the absolute dating of this period are separated by 56 or 64 years. This is because the key source for this analysis are the omen observations in the [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa|Venus tablet of King Ammisaduqa]] and these are multiples of the eight-year cycle of Venus visibility from Earth. More recent work by [[Vahe Gurzadyan]] has suggested that the fundamental eight-year cycle of Venus is a better metric.<ref name="ultra">[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311035.pdf] Gurzadyan, V. G., "On the Astronomical Records and Babylonian Chronology", Akkadica, vol. 119–120, pp. 175–184, 2000</ref><ref name="ultra1">{{Cite journal|last=Warburton|first=David A.|date=2011|title=The fall of Babylon in 1499: another update|journal=Akkadica|volume=132/1|pages=1–22}}</ref><ref name="ultra2">{{Cite journal|last=Warburton|first=David A.|date=2013|title=A Rejoinder in favour of an Ultra-Low Chronology|journal=Akkadica|volume=134/1|pages=17–28}}</ref> Some scholars discount the validity of the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa entirely. The alternative major chronologies are defined by the date of the eighth year of the reign of [[Ammisaduqa]], king of Babylon.

The most common Venus Tablet solutions ([[Babylonia#The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology|sack of Babylon]])

* Long Chronology (sack of Babylon 1651 BC)<ref>Huber, Peter J., "Reviewed Work(s): Dating the Fall of Babylon. A reappraisal of second-millennium
chronology by H. Gasche, J. A. Armstrong, S. W. Cole and V. G. Gurzadyan", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 46/47, pp. 287–90, 1999</ref>
* Middle Chronology (sack of Babylon 1595 BC)<ref>Brinkman, J. A., "Mesopotamian Chronology of the Historical Period", in A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia. 2nd revised (by E. Reiner) ed. Chicago: University Press of Chicago, pp. 335–48, 1977</ref><ref>Höflmayer, Felix, and Sturt W. Manning, "A synchronized early Middle Bronze Age chronology for Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 81.1, pp. 1–24, 2022</ref>
* Middle Low Chronology (sack of Babylon 1587 BC)<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology|first1=Sturt W.|last1=Manning|first2=Carol B.|last2=Griggs|first3=Brita|last3=Lorentzen|first4=Gojko|last4=Barjamovic|first5=Christopher Bronk|last5=Ramsey|first6=Bernd|last6=Kromer|first7=Eva Maria|last7=Wild|date=13 July 2016|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0157144|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0157144|pmid = 27409585|pmc = 4943651|bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157144M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Sturt|last2=Barjamovic|first2=Gojko|last3=Lorentzen|first3=Brita|date=2017-03-01|title=The Course of 14C Dating Does Not Run Smooth: Tree-Rings, Radiocarbon, and Potential Impacts of a Calibration Curve Wiggle on Dating Mesopotamian Chronology|url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/19979/19587|journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections|language=en|volume=13|pages=70–81|issn=1944-2815|access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref><ref>Nahm, Werner, "The Case for the Lower Middle Chronology.", Altorientalische Forschungen vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 350–72, 2013</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323187651_Further_Astronomical_Fine-Tuning_of_the_Old_Assyrian_and_Old_Babylonian_Chronologies] Teije De Jong, "Further Astronomical Fine-Tuning of the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian Chronologies", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap "Ex Oriente Lux", vol. 46, pp. 127–143, 2017</ref>
* Short Chronology (sack of Babylon 1531 BC)<ref>Amanda H. Podany, "Hana and the Low Chronology", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 49–71, April 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Sturt W.|last2=Kromer|first2=Bernd|last3=Kuniholm|first3=Peter Ian|last4=Newton|first4=Maryanne W.|date=2001-12-21|title=Anatolian Tree Rings and a New Chronology for the East Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages|journal=Science|language=en|volume=294|issue=5551|pages=2532–2535|doi=10.1126/science.1066112|pmid=11743159|bibcode=2001Sci...294.2532M |s2cid=33497945|issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*Ultra Short Chronology (sack of Babylon 1499 BC)<ref name="ultra" />

The following table gives an overview of the different proposals, listing some key dates and their deviation relative to the middle chronology, omitting the Supershort Chronology (sack of Babylon in 1466 BC):

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Chronology !! Ammisaduqa year 8 !! Reign of Hammurabi !! Sack of Babylon !! ±
|-
| Ultra-Low || 1542 BC || 1696–1654 BC || 1499 BC || −96 [[annum|a]]
|-
| Short or Low || 1574 BC || 1728–1686 BC || 1531 BC || −64 a
|-
| Middle Low || 1630 BC || 1784–1742 BC || 1587 BC || −8 a
|-
| Middle || 1638 BC || 1792–1750 BC || 1595 BC || +0 a
|-
| Long or High|| 1694 BC || 1848–1806 BC || 1651 BC || +56 a
|-
|}

==Sources of chronological data==

===Astronomical===
====Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa====
[[File:Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa.jpg|thumb|Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa]]
In the series, the conjunction of the rise of Venus with the new moon provides a point of reference, or rather three points, for the conjunction is a [[Periodic function|periodic]] occurrence. Identifying a conjunction during the reign of king [[Ammisaduqa]] with one of these calculated conjunctions will therefore fix, for example, the accession of Hammurabi as either 1848, 1792, or 1736 BC, known as the "high" ("long"), "[[Middle chronology|middle]]", and [[Short chronology|"short (or low) chronology"]].

A record of the movements of Venus over roughly a 16-day period during the reign of a king, believed to be Ammisaduqa of the First Babylonian Dynasty, has been preserved on a tablet called [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]] ([[Enuma Anu Enlil]] 63). Twenty copies and fragments have been recovered, all Neo-Assyrian and later.
<ref>[http://ww.caeno.org/pdf/Reiner_Ammizaduga%20BPO%201975.pdf] Erica Reiner and David Pingree, "BM 2/1. Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part I: The Venus Tablet", Udena, 1975 {{ISBN|0-89003-010-3}}</ref> An example entry is 
"In month XI, 15th day, Venus in the west disappeared, 3 days in the sky it stayed away, and in month XI, 18th day, Venus in the east became visible: springs will open, Adad his rain, Ea his floods will bring, king to king messages of reconciliation will send."<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Teije-De-Jong-2/publication/254913983_A_new_look_at_the_Venus_observations_of_Ammisaduqa_traces_of_the_Santorini_eruption_in_the_atmosphere_of_Babylon/links/5512f9f80cf23203199a0ccb/A-new-look-at-the-Venus-observations-of-Ammisaduqa-traces-of-the-Santorini-eruption-in-the-atmosphere-of-Babylon.pdf] T. de Jong andV. Foertmeyer, "A new look at the Venus observations of Ammisaduqa: traces of the Santorini eruption in the atmosphere of Babylon?", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap "Ex Oriente Lux", vol. 42, pp. 141–158, 2010</ref>
Using it, various scholars have proposed dates for the fall of Babylon based on the 56/64-year cycle of Venus. It has been suggested that the fundamental 8-year cycle of Venus is a better metric, leading to the proposal of an "ultra-low" chronology.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311036.pdf] Gurzadyan, V. G., "The Venus Tablet and Refraction", ''Akkadica'', vol. 124, pp. 13–17, 2003</ref> Other researchers have declared the data to be too noisy for any use in fixing the chronology.<ref>[http://www.caeno.org/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf]{{cite book |last1=Gasche |first1=H. |title=Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology |last2=Armstrong |first2=J.A. |last3=Cole |first3=S.W. |last4=Gurzadyan |first4=V.G. |publisher=University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |year=1998 |isbn=978-1885923103}}</ref><ref>H. Gasche, et al., "A Correction to 'The Fall of Babylon. A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology'", Akkadica 108, pp. 1–4, 1998</ref>

====Eclipses====
A number of lunar and solar eclipses have been suggested for use in dating the ancient Near East. Many suffer from the vagueness of the original tablets in showing that an actual eclipse occurred. At that point, it becomes a question of using computer models to show when a given eclipse would have been visible at a site, complicated by difficulties in modeling the slowing rotation of the earth ([[ΔT (timekeeping)|ΔT]]) and uncertainty about the lengths of months.
<ref>[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/2006POBeo..80..251B] B. Banjevic, "Ancient eclipses and dating the fall of Babylon", Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade, vol. 80, pp. 251–257, May 2006</ref><ref>[https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0022_20210907.pdf] Peter J. Huber, "Third Millennium BC Chronology and Clock-Time Correction", Cuneiform Digital Library Preprints, no. 22, CDLI, 8 September 2021</ref>
Most calculations for dating using eclipses have assumed the Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa to be a legitimate source.<ref name="ultra"/><ref>Mitchell, Wayne A., "Ancient Astronomical Observations and Near Eastern Chronology", ''JACF'', vol. 3, pp. 7–26, 1990</ref> The most notable omitted eclipses are the [[Mari Eponym Chronicle]] eclipse from the time of Shamshi-Adad I and the [[Sargon of Akkad]] eclipse (from the Legends of the Kings of Akkad and a liver omen).<ref>[http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2002-1.pdf] C. Michel, "Nouvelles données pour la chronologie du IIe millénaire", Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires (NABU), issue 1, note 20, pp. 17–18, 2002</ref><ref>Huber, Peter. "Dating of Akkad, Ur III, and Babylon I", Organization, Representation, and Symbols of Power in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 54th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Würzburg 20–25 Jul, edited by Gernot Wilhelm, University Park, US: Penn State University Press, pp. 715–734, 2022</ref>

Some important examples:

*[[Assyrian eclipse|Nineveh eclipse]] – a short text found in an Assyrian list of royal officials (''[[limmu|limmū]]'') which says the following: "Bur-Sagale of [[Tell Halaf|Guzana]], revolt in the city of [[Assur|Ashur]]. In the month Simanu an eclipse of the sun took place." Bur-Sagale was the name of the royal official. The text was part of the [[Eponym dating system]]. This eclipse is considered to be solidly dated to 15 June 763 BC, corresponding to the ninth or eleventh year of the reign of king [[Ashur-dan III]].<ref>Rawlinson, Henry Creswicke, "The Assyrian Canon Verified by the Record of a Solar Eclipse, B.C. 763", ''The Athenaeum: Journal of Literature, Science and the Fine Arts'', nr. 2064, pp. 660–661, 18 May 1867</ref>
*[[Mursili's eclipse]] – a text in the 10th year of the reign of Mursili II of the [[Hittite Empire]], "[When] I marched [to the land of A]zzi, the Sungod gave a sign.", has been interpreted as an eclipse event. Proposed dates range between 1340 BC and 1308 BC.<ref>Theo P. J. Van Den Hout, The Purity of Kingship: An Edition of CTH 569 and Related Hittite Oracle Inquiries of Tutẖaliya, 1998</ref><ref>Gautschy, R., "Remarks Concerning the Alleged Solar Eclipse of Muršili II.", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 2017. {{doi|10.1515/aofo-2017-0004}}</ref><ref>Devecchi, E., Miller, J.L., "Hittite-Egyptian synchronisms and their consequences for ancient Near Eastern chronology", in J. Mynářová (ed), Egypt and the Near East – The Crossroads. Proceedings of an International Conference on the Relations of Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, Prague, Charles University, pp. 139–176, 2011</ref><ref>Miller, J.L., "Political interactions between Kassite Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt and Ḫatti during the Amarna Age", in A. Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke (eds), Karduniaš. Babylonia Under the Kassites, Berlin, de Gruyter, pp. 93–11, 2017</ref>
*Shulgi Eclipse – Based on a prophecy text called ''[[Enuma Anu Enlil]] 20'' which states "If an eclipse occurs on the 14th day of Simānu ... The  king of Ur, his son will  wrong him, and the son who wronged his father, Šamaš will catch him. He will die in the mourning place of his father" from the end of the reign of [[Shulgi]] of the [[Ur III]] dynasty. A date of 25 July 2093 BC has been proposed. These prophecies were written after the fact to help predict future events. A second prophecy, EAE 21 (month 12), predicts the fall of Ur III in the reign of [[Ibbi-Sin]] stating "If an eclipse occurs on  the 14th day of Addaru ... The  prediction  is  given for the king of the world:  The  destruction  of  Ur".<ref>Peter J. Huber, "Astronomy and Ancient Chronology", Akkadica 119–120, pp. 159–176, 2000</ref>
*Babylon Eclipse – Another section in EAE 20 (month 3) refers to the fall of Babylon i.e. "if an eclipse occurs on the 14th day of Shabattu (month XI), and the god, in his eclipse ... The prediction is given for Babylon: the destruction of Babylon is near ...". It refers to a solar eclipse followed by a lunar eclipse. The most likely solution, 1547 BC, does not match up with Venus Tablet solutions. There are textual problems with the prophecy and it has been suggested that Akkad is actually the city in question.<ref>{{citation|arxiv=2007.07141|title=The Double Eclipse at the Downfall of Old Babylon|year=2020|last1=Khalisi|first1=Emil}}</ref>
*Tell Muhammad Eclipse – At [[Tell Muhammad]] several tablets, silver loan contracts, were found that were dated with two year names "Year 38 after Babylon was resettled" and "The year that the Moon was eclipsed". The former year name is of a format used by the Kassites, a change from the event format used through the Old Babylonian period. Attempts have been made to use this eclipse to date the sack of Babylon and its resettlement by the Kassites.<ref>Calderbank, Daniel, "Dispersed Communities of Practice During the First Dynasty of the Sealand: The Pottery from Tell Khaiber, Southern Iraq", Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 58–87, 2020</ref><ref name="arxiv.org"/><ref>Gasche, Hermann, and Michel Tanret, eds., "Changing Watercourses in Babylonia: Towards a Reconstruction of the Ancient Environment in Lower Mesopotamia", Volume 1. Mesopotamian History and Environment Series II Memoirs V. Ghent and Chicago: University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1998</ref>

====Egyptian lunar observations====
There are thirteen Egyptian New Kingdom lunar observations which are used to pin the chronology in that period by locking down the accession year of Ramsesses II to 1279 BC. There are a number of issues with this including a) the regnal lengths for [[Neferneferuaten]], [[Seti I]], and [[Horemheb]] are actually not known with accuracy, b) where the observations occurred (Memphis is usually assumed), c) what day the observations were taken (two are known to be the 1st lunar day), and d) the Egyptian calendar for this period is not fully known, especially how intercalary months were handled.<ref>Gautschy, Rita. "A Reassessment of the Absolute Chronology of the Egyptian New Kingdom and its 'Brotherly' Countries" Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 24, pp. 141–58, 2014</ref> Since the Assyrian eponym list is accurate to one year only back to 1132 BC, ancient Near East chronology for the preceding century or so is anchored to Ramsesses II, based on synchronisms and the Egyptian lunar observations.<ref>Weidner E., "Die grosse Königsliste aus Assur", AfO 3, 1926</ref> It has been suggested that lunar dates place the accession of [[Thutmose III]], pharaoh of the [[Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)|Battle of Megiddo]], to 1490 BC or even 1505 BC versus the current 1470 BC.<ref>Casperson, Lee W., "The Lunar Dates of Thutmose III", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 139–50, 1986</ref>

====Kudurru symbols====
A number of attempts have been made to date Kassite [[Kudurru]] stone documents by mapping the symbols to astrononomical elements, using [[Babylonian star catalogues]] such as [[MUL.APIN]] with so far very limited results.<ref>Tuman, V.S., "Astronomical Dating of the Kudurru IM 80908", Sumer, vol. 46, pp. 98–106, 1989–1990</ref><ref>Pizzimenti, "The Kudurrus And The Sky. Analysis And Interpretation Of The Dog-Scorpion-Lamp Astral Pattern As Represented In Kassite Kudurrus Reliefs", February 2016 {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.220910}}</ref>

===Inscriptional===
Thousands of cuneiform tablets have been found in an area running from Anatolia to Egypt. While many are the ancient equivalent of grocery receipts, these tablets, along with inscriptions on buildings and public monuments, provide the major source of chronological information for the ancient Middle East.<ref>Cuneiform Texts and the Writing of History, Marc van de Mieroop, Routledge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-415-19532-2}}</ref>

====Underlying issues====
*State of materials

While there are some relatively pristine display-quality objects, the vast majority of recovered tablets and inscriptions are damaged. They have been broken with only portions found, intentionally defaced, and damaged by weather or soil. Many tablets were not even baked and have to be carefully handled until they can be hardened by heating.<ref>[https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlj/2003/cdlj2003_001.html] Robert K. Englund, "The Year: "Nissen returns joyous from a distant island"", 2003:1, CDLI, {{ISSN|1540-8779}}</ref>
*Provenance

The site of an item's recovery is an important piece of information for archaeologists, which can be compromised by two factors. First, in ancient times old materials were often reused as building material or fill, sometimes at a great distance from the original location. Secondly, looting has disturbed archaeological sites at least back to Roman times, making the provenance of looted objects difficult or impossible to determine. Lastly, counterfeit versions of these object are a longstanding traditional, often difficult to detect.<ref>Michel, Cécile. "Cuneiform Fakes: A Long History from Antiquity to the Present Day". Fakes and Forgeries of Written Artefacts from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern China, edited by Cécile Michel and Michael Friedrich, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 25–60, 2020</ref>
*Multiple versions

Key documents like the ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' were repeatedly copied and redacted over generations to suit current political needs. For this and other reasons, the Sumerian King List, once regarded as an important historical source, is now only used with caution, if at all, for the period under discussion here.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last=Marchesi|first=Gianni|date=2010|title=The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia|url=https://www.academia.edu/10052536|journal=M. G. Biga – M. Liverani (Eds.), ana turri gimilli: Studi dedicati al Padre Werner R. Mayer, S. J., da amici e allievi (Vicino Oriente – Quaderno 5; Roma)|pages=231–248|access-date=15 September 2021|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029070923/https://www.academia.edu/10052536|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Translation

The translation of cuneiform documents is quite difficult, especially for damaged source material. Additionally, our knowledge of the underlying languages, like Akkadian and Sumerian, has evolved over time, so a translation done now may be quite different from one done in AD 1900: there can be honest disagreement over what a document says. Worse, the majority of archaeological finds have not yet been published, much less translated. Those held in private collections may never be.
*Political slant

Many of our important source documents, such as the Assyrian King List, are the products of government and religious establishments, with a natural bias in favor of the king or god in charge. A king may even take credit for a battle or construction project of an earlier ruler. The Assyrians in particular have a literary tradition of putting the best possible face on history, a fact the interpreter must constantly keep in mind.

====King lists====
Historical lists of rulers were traditional in the ancient Near East.

*[[Sumerian King List]]
[[File:Sumerian King List, 1800 BC, Larsa, Iraq (detail).jpg|thumb|Sumerian King List]]
Covers rulers of Mesopotamia from a time "before [[Eridu Genesis|the flood]]" to the fall of the [[Dynasty of Isin|Isin Dynasty]], depending on the version. Its use for pre-Akkadian rulers is limited to none. It continues to have value for the Akkadian period and later.<ref name=":122"/> The ''Sumerian King List'' omits any mention of [[Lagash]], even though it was clearly a major power during the period covered by the list. The Royal Chronicle of Lagash appears to be an attempt to remedy that omission, listing the kings of Lagash in the form of a chronicle though some scholars believe the Lagash chronicle to be either a parody of the ''Sumerian King List'' or a complete fabrication.<ref name=glassner>Jean-Jacques Glassner, ''Mesopotamian Chronicles'' (2004) {{ISBN|1-58983-090-3}}</ref>

*[[List of kings of Babylon#Sources|Babylonian King List]]
This list deals only with the rulers of Babylon. It has been found in two versions, denoted A and B both written in Neo-Babylonian times. The later dynasties in the list document the Kassite and Sealand periods though a number of Kassite rulers are damaged. Ruler names largely match other records but the regnal lengths are more problematic.<ref>van Koppen, Frans. "The Old to Middle Babylonian Transition: History and Chronology of the Mesopotamian Dark Age" Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 20, pp. 453–63, 2010</ref> There is also a Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period in later part of the 1st millennium.<ref>A. J. Sachs and D. J. Wiseman, "A Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period", Iraq, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 202–212, Autumn 1954</ref>

*[[List of Assyrian kings#Sources|Assyrian King List]]
The Assyrian King List extends back to the reign of [[Shamshi Adad I]] (1809 – c.&nbsp;1776 BC), an [[Amorite]] who conquered Assur while
creating a new kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia. The list extends to the reign of [[Shalmaneser V]] (727–722 BC). It is believed that the list was first constructed in the time of [[Ashur-uballit I]] (1365–1330 BC). 
The king list is considered to be roughly correct from that point on, less so for earlier entries which have numerous inconsistencies.
Its purpose is to create a narrative of continuity and legitimacy for Assyrian kingship, blending in the kings of Amorite origin.
<ref>[https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2906695/view] Valk, Jonathan, "The Origins of the Assyrian King List", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–17, 2019</ref>
The existing source consists of 3 mostly complete tables and 2 small fragments.
<ref>Gelb, Ignace J., "Two Assyrian King Lists.", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol.  13, pp. 209–230 and pls. XIV–XVII, 1954</ref>
<ref>Nassouhi, Essad., "Grande liste des rois d'Assyrie. Archiv für Orientforschung", vol. 4, pp. 1–11 and pls. I–II, 1927</ref>
There are differences between the tablets involving regnal lengths, names, and in one case a king being left out entirely. Not surprising given that they are noted as being copies of earlier tablets.
<ref>Pruzsinszky, Regine, "Mesopotamian Chronology of the 2nd Millennium B.C.: An Introduction to the Textual Evidence and Related Chronological Issues.", Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2009</ref>

====Chronicles====
{{Main|Babylonian Chronicles}}
Many chronicles have been recovered in the ancient Near East, most fragmentary, with a political slant, and sometimes contradictory; but when combined with other sources, they provide a rich source of chronological data.<ref name=glassner/>

Most available chronicles stem from later Babylonian and Assyrian sources. The
[[Dynastic Chronicle]], after a Sumerian King List type beginning, involves
Babylonian kings from [[Simbar-shipak|Simbar-Šipak]] ({{Circa}} 1021–1004 BC) to [[Eriba-Marduk|Erība-Marduk]] ({{Circa}} 769 – 761 BC). The [[Chronicle of Early Kings]], after an early preamble, involves kings of the First Babylonian Empire ending with the First Sealand Dynasty. The [[Tummal Inscription]] relates events from king [[Ishbi-Erra]] of Isin at the beginning of the second millennium BC. The [[Chronicle of the Market Prices]] mentions various Babylonian rulers beginning from the period of Hammurabi. The [[Eclectic Chronicle]] relates events of the post-Kassite Babylonian kings. Other examples are the [[Religious Chronicle]], and
[[Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle]], among others.

The Synchronistic Chronicle, found in the library of Assurbanipal in Nineveh records the diplomacy of the Assyrian empire with the Babylonian empire. While useful, the consensus is that this chronicle should not be considered reliable.
[[Chronicle P]] provides the same type of information as the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, but from the Babylonian point of view.<ref name="Grayson1975"/>

====Royal inscriptions====

Rulers in the ancient Near East liked to take credit for public works. Temples, buildings and statues are likely to identify their royal patron. Kings also publicly recorded major deeds such as battles won, titles acquired, and gods appeased. These are very useful in tracking the reign of a ruler.

====Year lists====

Unlike current calendars, most ancient calendars were based on the accession of the current ruler, as in "the 5th year in the reign of Hammurabi". Each royal year was also given a title reflecting a deed of the ruler, like "the year Ur was defeated". The compilation of these years are called date lists.
<ref>[http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/yn_index.html] Marcel Sigrist and Peter Damerow, "Mesopotamian Year Names: Neo-Sumerian and Old Babylonian Date Formulae", CDLI at UCLA</ref><ref>Baqir, Taha, "Date-formulae and date-lists from Harmal.", Sumer, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 34–86, January 1949</ref><ref>de Boer, Rients. "Studies on the Old Babylonian Kings of Isin and Their Dynasties with an Updated List of Isin Year Names" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 5–27, 2021</ref>

====Eponym (limmu) lists====

In Assyria, a royal official or ''limmū'' was selected in every year of a king's reign. Many copies of these lists have been found,<ref>Alan Millard, "The Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910–612 B.C.", State Archives of Assyria Studies 11, Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 1994</ref> with certain ambiguities. There are sometimes too many or few royal officials for the length of a king's reign, and sometimes the different versions of the eponym list disagree on a royal official, for example in the [[Mari Eponym Chronicle]]. The eponym list is considered accurate within 1 year back to 1133 BC. Before that uncertainty creeps in. There is now an [[Eponym dating system|Assyrian Revised Eponym List]] which attempts to resolve some of these issues.<ref>Gojko Barjamovic, Thomas Hertel and Mogens T. Larsen, "Ups and Downs at Kanesh: Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period", Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012</ref>

====Trade, diplomatic, and disbursement records====

As often in archaeology, everyday records give the best picture of a civilization. Cuneiform tablets were constantly moving around the ancient Near East, offering alliances (sometimes including daughters for marriage), threatening war, recording shipments of mundane supplies, or settling accounts receivable. Most were tossed away after use as one today would discard unwanted receipts, but fortunately for us, clay tablets are durable enough to survive even when used as material for wall filler in new construction.<ref>Trevor Bryce, "Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East", Routledge, 2003 {{ISBN|0-415-25857-X}}</ref>

*[[Amarna letters]]
[[File:Five Amarna letters on display at the British Museum, LondonA.jpg|thumb|Five Amarna letters on display at the British Museum]]
A key find was a number of cuneiform tablets from Amarna in Egypt, the city of the pharaoh [[Akhenaten]]. Mostly in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time, a number of them name foreign rulers including kings of Assyria and Babylon
as well as [[Tushratta]] king of Mitanni and rulers of small states in the 
Levant.
The letters date from the later stages of the reign of [[Amenhotep III]]
(c.&nbsp;1386–1349 BC) to the 2nd year of [[Tutankhamun]] (c.&nbsp;1341–1323 BC). Assuming that the correct foreign rulers have been identified, this provides
and important point of synchronization. Identification can be difficult 
due to the propensity for states to re-use regnal names.
<ref name=":0">{{cite book |first=William L. |last=Moran |title=The Amarna Letters |location=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-8018-4251-4 |page=xiv |url=https://archive.org/details/amarnaletters0000unse}}</ref>

===Classical===
We have some data sources from the classical period:
*[[Berossus]]

Berossus, a Babylonian astronomer and historian born during the time of 
[[Alexander the Great]] wrote a history of Babylon which is
a [[lost book]]. Portions were preserved by other classical writers,
mainly [[Josephus]] via [[Alexander Polyhistor]]. The surviving material
is in chronicle form and covers the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] period from
Nabopolassar (627–605 BC) to Nabonidus (556–539 BC).
<ref>[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111163949/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|date=11 November 2021}} R.J. (Bert) van der Spek, "Berossus as a Babylonian  chronicler and Greek historian", in: R.J. van der Spek et al. eds. Studies in Ancient Near Eastern World View and Society presented to Marten Stol on the occasion of his 65th birthday, 10 November 2005, and his retirement from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, pp. 277–318, Bethesda MD: CDL Press, 2008</ref>
*Canon of Ptolemy ([[Canon of Kings]])
This book provides a list of kings starting with the Neo-Babylonian Empire and ending with the early Roman Emperors. The entries relevant to the ancient Near East run from Nabonassar (747–734 BC) to the Macedonian king Alexander IV
(323–309 BC). Though mostly accepted as accurate there are known
issues with the Canon. Some rulers are omitted, there are times for which no
ruler is listed, and the early dates have been converted from the lunar
calendar used by the Babylonians to the Egyptian solar calendar.
<ref>A. Brinkman, "A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 BC", Analecta Orientalia, vol. 43, Rome, 1968</ref>
<ref name="Grayson1975">A. K. Grayson, "Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, Texts from Cuneiform Sources", vol. 5, Locust  Valley, N.Y., 1975 (Eisenbrauns reprint {{ISBN|978-1575060491}})</ref>
<ref>[http://www.caeno.orgwww.caeno.org/pdf/Depuydt_Ptolemy%20Canon%20and%20B%20Chronology.pdf] Leo Depuydt, "More Valuable than All Gold": Ptolemy's Royal Canon and Babylonian Chronology,  Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 47, pp. 97–117, 1995</ref>
*[[Hebrew Bible]]

Not having the stability of buried clay tablets, the records of the Hebrews have a great deal of ancient editorial work to sift through when used as a source for chronology. However, the Hebrew kingdoms lay at the crossroads of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt and the Hittites, making them spectators and often victims of actions in the area during the 1st millennium. Mostly concerned with regional events in the Levant, in 2 Kings 23 {{lang-he|פַרְעֹה נְכֹה|Phare'oh Necho}}, thought to be pharaoh [[Necho II]], is mentioned three times.
Neo-Babylonian kings are mentioned in 2 Kings 20, {{lang-he|בְּרֹאדַךְ בַּלְאֲדָן|Berodach Bal'adan}}, thought to be [[Marduk-apla-iddina II]], in 2 Kings 24 [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and in 2 Kings  25 {{lang-he|אֱוִיל מְרֹדַךְ|Evil Merodach}}, thought to be [[Amel-Marduk]]. In Isaiah 38 the neo-Assyrian kings [[Sennacherib]] and [[Esarhaddon]] are mentioned.

===Dendrochronology===
{{Main|Dendrochronology}}

Dendrochronology attempts to use the variable growth pattern of trees, expressed in their rings, to build up a chronological timeline. At present there are no continuous chronologies for the Near East, and a floating chronology has been developed using trees in Anatolia for the Bronze and Iron Ages. Professor of archaeology at Cornell, Sturt Manning, has spearheaded efforts to use this floating chronology with radiocarbon wiggle-match to anchor the chronology.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41598-020-69287-2 | title=Radiocarbon offsets and old world chronology as relevant to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia and Thera (Santorini) | date=2020 | last1=Manning | first1=Sturt W. | last2=Wacker | first2=Lukas | last3=Büntgen | first3=Ulf | last4=Bronk Ramsey | first4=Christopher | last5=Dee | first5=Michael W. | last6=Kromer | first6=Bernd | last7=Lorentzen | first7=Brita | last8=Tegel | first8=Willy | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=10 | issue=1 | page=13785 | pmid=32807792 | pmc=7431540 | bibcode=2020NatSR..1013785M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Sturt W. |last2=Griggs |first2=Carol B. |last3=Lorentzen |first3=Brita |last4=Barjamovic |first4=Gojko |last5=Ramsey |first5=Christopher Bronk |last6=Kromer |first6=Bernd |last7=Wild |first7=Eva Maria |date=2016-07-13 |title=Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=e0157144 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0157144 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4943651 |pmid=27409585|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1157144M |doi-access=free }}</ref> His research has recently been included in the Oxford History of the Ancient Near East and has been cited widely in the recent academic literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Höflmayer |first=Felix |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume II |date=2022-08-18 |chapter=Establishing an Absolute Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age |pages=1–46 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/43915/chapter/370990214 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687571.003.0011 |isbn=978-0190687571 |access-date=22 December 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901043627/https://academic.oup.com/book/43915/chapter/370990214 |url-status=live }}</ref> A new method has been developed to combine dendrochronology with [[Miyake event]]s to extend the range to other areas.<ref>Andrej Maczkowski et al, "Absolute dating of the European Neolithic using the 5259 BC rapid 14C excursion", Nature Communications, 2024 {{doi|10.1038/s41467-024-48402-1}}</ref>

===Radiocarbon dating===
{{Main|Radiocarbon Dating}}

As in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, radiocarbon dates run one or two centuries earlier than the dates proposed by archaeologists.<ref>Höflmayer, Felix, "Radiocarbon Dating and Egyptian Chronology—From the “Curve of Knowns” to Bayesian Modeling", The Oxford Handbook of Topics in Archaeology (online edn, Oxford Academic, 2 Oct. 2014), {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.64}}</ref> Recently, radiocarbon dates from the final destruction of [[Ebla]] have been shown to definitely favour the middle chronology (with the fall of Babylon and Aleppo at c.&nbsp;1595 BC), and seem to discount the ultra-low chronology (same event at c.&nbsp;1499 BC), although it is emphasized that this is not presented as a decisive argument.<ref>Matthiae, P., "The Destruction of Old Syrian Ebla", in Matthiae, P., Pinnock, F., Nigro, L. and Peyronel, L. (eds.) From relative chronology to absolute chronology: The second millennium BC in Syria-Palestine, Contributi del Centro Linceo Interdisciplinare "Beniamino Segre" N. 117. Roma, pp. 5–32, 2007</ref>

Radiocarbon dates in literature should be discounted if they do not include the raw C14 date and the calibration method. There have also been issues with dating for charcoal samples, which may reflect much older wood the charcoal was made from. There are also calibration issues with annual and regional C14 variations.<ref>Dee, Michael W., and Benjamin J. S. Pope, "Anchoring Historical Sequences Using a New Source of Astro-Chronological Tie-Points", Proceedings: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 472, no. 2192, pp. 1–11, 2016</ref> A further problem is that earlier archaeological dates used traditional radiocarbon dating while newer results sometimes come from [[Radiocarbon dating#Accelerator mass spectrometry|Accelerator mass spectrometry]] (AMS) radiocarbon dating which is more accurate. In recent years some properly calibrated radiocarbon dates have begun to appear:
*In 1991 Two grain samples from the Middle Uruk layer of the Uruk Mound at [[Abu Salabikh]] were accelerator radiocarbon dated with calibrated dates of 3520 ± 130 BC.<ref>Susan Pollock, Caroline Steele and Melody Pope, "Investigations on the Uruk Mound, Abu Salabikh, 1990", Iraq, vol. 53, pp. 59–68, 1991</ref> Calibration was based on that of Pearson.<ref>Pearson, G. W. et al., "High precision 14C measurement of Irish oaks to show the natural 14C variation from a.d. 1840 to 5210 b.c.", Radiocarbon 28, pp. 911–34, 1986</ref>
*In 2013 a bone awl from [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] from Phase 2 in the YWN area, the transition between [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] and Akkadian periods, was accelerator radiocarbon dated to 2471–2299 BC (3905 ± 27 C14 years BP).<ref name="Zaina2015">[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289504251_A_Radiocarbon_Date_from_Early_Dynastic_Kishand_the_Stratigraphy_and_Chronology_of_the_YWN_sounding_at_Tell_Ingharra] Zaina, F., "A Radiocarbon date from Early Dynastic Kish and the Stratigraphy and Chronology of the YWN sounding at Tell Ingharra", Iraq, vol. 77(1), pp. 225–234, 2015</ref>
*In 2017 charcoal sample from the base area of the Umm Al Nar fortress tower at [[Tell Abraq]] provided a radiocarbon date of 2461–2199 BC (3840±40 C14 years BP). It was calibrated with  IntCal13. The [[Umm Al Nar culture|Umm Al Nar]] period is co-temporal with the Akkadian through Ur III periods in Mesopotamia.<ref>Magee, Peter, et al., "Tell Abraq during the second and first millennia BC: Site layout, spatial organisation, and economy", Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 28.2, pp. 209–237, 2017</ref>

Other emerging technical dating methods include [[rehydroxylation dating]], [[luminescence dating]], [[archaeomagnetic dating]] and the dating of lime plaster from structures.<ref name="WilsonCHH09">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Moira A. | last2 = Carter | first2 = Margaret A. | last3 = Hall | first3 = Christopher | last4 = Hoff | first4 = William D. | last5 = Ince | first5 = Ceren | last6 = Wilson | first6 = Moira A. | last7 = Savage | first7 = Shaun D. | last8 = McKay | first8 = Bernard | last9 = Betts | first9 = Ian M. | title = Dating fired-clay ceramics using long-term power law rehydroxylation kinetics | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society A | volume = 465 | issue = 2108 | pages = 2407–2415 | date = 8 August 2009 | doi = 10.1098/rspa.2009.0117 | bibcode = 2009RSPSA.465.2407W | s2cid = 59491943 | url = http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/465/2108/2407.full.pdf | access-date = 1 April 2020 }}</ref><ref>YvesGallet et al., "Possible impact of the Earth's magnetic field on the history of ancient civilizations", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 246, iss. 1–2, pp. 17–26, 15 June 2006</ref><ref>Jason A. Rech, "New Uses for Old Laboratory techniques", Near Eastern Archaeology, 67, 4, pp. 212–219, Dec. 2004</ref><ref>Jesper Olsen, "Revisiting radiocarbon dating of lime mortar and lime plaster from Jerash in Jordan: Sample preparation by stepwise injection of diluted phosphoric acid", Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, vol. 41, February 2022</ref><ref>[https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2209117119] Vaknin, Yoav, et al. "Reconstructing biblical military campaigns using geomagnetic field data", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119.44, 2022</ref>

===Synchronisms===

====Egypt====
{{Main|Egyptian Chronology}}

At least as far back as the reign of [[Thutmose I]], Egypt took a strong interest in the ancient Near East. At times they occupied portions of the region, a favor returned later by the Assyrians. Some key synchronisms:
*[[Battle of Kadesh]], involving [[Ramses II]] of Egypt ("Year 5 III Shemu day 9") and [[Muwatalli II]] of the Hittite empire. This would be 12 May 1274 BC, in the usually accepted Egyptian chronology.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/cu31924082479241] James Henry Breasted, "Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest", Ancient Records, Second Series, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 1906</ref> Recorded by both Egyptian ([[Kadesh inscriptions]]) and Hittite records.
*Peace treaty ([[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty]]) between Ramses II of Egypt, in his 21st year of reign (roughly 1259 BC) and [[Hattusili III]] of the Hittites. Hieroglyphic copies were found at the temple of Amun at Karnak and at the Ramesseumand. Fragmentary Akkadian cuneiform fragments were found at [[Hattusa]].<ref>Sürenhagen, Dietrich, "Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty", British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan (BMSAES), vol. 6, pp. 59–67, 2006</ref>
*[[Amenhotep III]] (Amenophis III) marries the daughter of [[Shuttarna II]] of [[Mitanni]]. There is also a record of messages from the pharaoh to [[Kadashman-Enlil I]] of Babylon in the Amarna Letter (EA1–5). Other Amarna letters link Amenhotep III to [[Burnaburiash II]] of Babylon (EA6) and [[Tushratta]] of Mitanni (EA17–29) as well.
*[[Akhenaten]] (Amenhotep IV) married the daughter of Tushratta of Mitanni (as did his father Amenhotep III), leaving a number of records. He also corresponded with [[Burna-Buriash II]] of Babylon (EA7–11, 15), and [[Ashuruballit I]] of Assyria (EA15–16)
*[[Bay (chancellor)|Bay]] an official of the Egyptian queen [[Twosret]], in a tablet (RS 86.2230) found at [[Ras Shamra]], was in communication with [[Ammurapi]], the last ruler of [[Ugarit]]. Bay was in office from approximately 1194–1190 BC. This sets an upper limit on the destruction date of Ugarit.<ref>[https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1988_num_65_3_7086] Freu J, "La tablette RS 86.2230 et la phase finale du Royaume d’Ugarit.",
Syria, vol. 65, pp.395–398, 1988</ref><ref>[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?type=printable&id=10.1371/journal.pone.0020232] Kaniewski D, Van Campo E, Van Lerberghe K, Boiy T, Vansteenhuyse K, et al., "The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating",  PLoS ONE, 6(6): e20232, 2011 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232</ref>
*Pottery seals of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian pharaoh [[Pepi I]] have been found in the wreckage of the city of [[Ebla]], destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad.<ref>Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, "A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 55, pp. 1–44, 2003</ref>

There are problems with using Egyptian chronology. Besides some minor issues of regnal lengths and overlaps, there are three long periods of poorly documented chaos in the history of ancient Egypt, the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First]], [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second]], and [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Periods]], whose lengths are doubtful.<ref>Thijs, Ad., "The Burial of Psusennes I and “The Bad Times” of P. Brooklyn 16.205", Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 141, no. 2, pp. 209–223, 2014</ref> This means the Egyptian Chronology actually comprises three floating chronologies. The chronologies of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia depend significantly on the [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]]. To the extent that there are problems in the Egyptian chronology, these issues will be inherited in chronologies based on synchronisms with Ancient Egypt.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00310328.2020.1866329] Felix Höflmayer, "Tel Nami, Cyprus, and Egypt: Radiocarbon Dates and Early Middle Bronze Age Chronology", Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2021 {{doi|10.1080/00310328.2020.1866329}}</ref><ref>Belmonte, Juan Antonio, and José Lull, "Astronomy and Chronology", Astronomy of Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Perspective", Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 467–529, 2023</ref><ref>Ward, William A., "The Present Status of Egyptian Chronology", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 288, pp. 53–66, 1992</ref>

====Indus Valley====
{{Main|Indus Valley civilisation}}

There is much evidence that the Bronze Age civilization of the [[Indus Valley]] traded with the Near East, including clay seals found at Ur III and in the Persian Gulf.<ref>Gadd, C. J., "Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur". Proceedings of the British Academy 18, pp. 191–210, 1932</ref> Seals and beads were also found at the site of [[Esnunna]].<ref>Henri Frankfort, "The Indus civilization and the Near East", Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology for 1932, Leyden, VI, pp. 1–12, 1934</ref><ref>[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31995196/Connections_between_IVC_and_Mesopotamia-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1637025058&Signature=NY9HQYPFYXlp~s6yqFlHHrDB5jk2nQSP21oWWnoVeGxvpvuG5h~5-2ZZf13mpwLwBqxQVdMntfP8op6nhEeMS9ZXc~ISgjZgZzIzz36qVg9B1iSuTInPHfJDcQ4n1KMoGnX6n-WvIykCa8e7jLzBnmG7kQiKV8U40aBFHc9Hr0vMDZmJKTtEfdgqAptDGZtwm~p5H8znaAEi0RZtG4XjQ6ARx7uZKXSmB77AvQV-OWzI37ORQ0vd6UpBQxIllV~2QRGtVTpS9ADQR8GNv0dEvr7OGwPqHM7PRKvORGOHsnSjuXdHfjr9XdmVqs08cRoZw-rlSml5Y0ZVvrZILyY0hQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116001136/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31995196/Connections_between_IVC_and_Mesopotamia-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1637025058&Signature=NY9HQYPFYXlp~s6yqFlHHrDB5jk2nQSP21oWWnoVeGxvpvuG5h~5-2ZZf13mpwLwBqxQVdMntfP8op6nhEeMS9ZXc~ISgjZgZzIzz36qVg9B1iSuTInPHfJDcQ4n1KMoGnX6n-WvIykCa8e7jLzBnmG7kQiKV8U40aBFHc9Hr0vMDZmJKTtEfdgqAptDGZtwm~p5H8znaAEi0RZtG4XjQ6ARx7uZKXSmB77AvQV-OWzI37ORQ0vd6UpBQxIllV~2QRGtVTpS9ADQR8GNv0dEvr7OGwPqHM7PRKvORGOHsnSjuXdHfjr9XdmVqs08cRoZw-rlSml5Y0ZVvrZILyY0hQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|date=16 November 2021}} J. MarkKenoyer et al., "A new approach to tracking connections between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia: initial results of strontium isotope analyses from Harappa and Ur", Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 40, iss. 5, pp. 2286–2297 May 2013</ref> In addition, if the land of [[Meluhha]] does indeed refer to the Indus Valley, then there are extensive trade records ranging from the Akkadian Empire until the Babylonian Dynasty I.

====Thera and Eastern Mediterranean====

Goods from Greece made their way into the ancient Near East, directly in Anatolia and via the island of [[Cyprus]] in the rest of the region and Egypt. A Hittite king, Tudhaliya IV, even captured Cyprus as part of an attempt to enforce a blockade of the Assyrians.<ref>Urbanism on Late Bronze Age Cyprus: LC II in Retrospect, Ora Negbi, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, iss. 337, pp. 1–45, Feb 2005</ref>

[[File:Santorini ASTER.jpg|thumb|Santorini/Thera]]
The [[Minoan eruption#Eruption dating|eruption of the Thera volcano]] provides a possible time marker for the region. A large eruption, it would have sent a plume of ash directly over Anatolia and filled the sea in the area with floating pumice. This pumice appeared in Egypt, apparently via trade. Current excavations in the Levant may also add to the timeline. The exact date of the volcanic eruption has been the subject of strong debate, with dates ranging between 1628 and 1520 BC. These dates are based on  radiocarbon samples, dendrochronology, ice cores, and archaeological remains. Archaeological remains date the eruption toward the end of the [[Minoan civilization#Late Minoan|Late Minoan IA]] period (c. 1636–1527 BC) roughly comparable to the beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt.<ref>Mühlenbruch, Tobias, "The absolute dating of the volcanic eruption of Santorini/Thera (periferia South Aegean/GR) – an alternative perspective", Praehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. 92, no. 1–2, pp. 92–107, 2017</ref> Radiocarbon dating has placed it at between 1627 BC and 1600 BC with a 95% degree of probability.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Friedrich|first=Walter L|author2=Kromer, B|author3=Friedrich, M|author4=Heinemeier, J|author5=Pfeiffer, T|author6=Talamo, S|title=Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627–1600 B.C.|journal=Science|volume=312|issue=5773|pages=548|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|year=2006|doi=10.1126/science.1125087|access-date=10 March 2007|pmid=16645088|s2cid=35908442|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5773/548|archive-date=19 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619090500/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5773/548|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Manning">Manning, Sturt W., et al., "Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700–1400 B.C.", Science, vol. 312, no. 5773, pp. 565–569, 2006</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=SW |last=Manning |contribution=Clarifying the "high" v. "low" Aegean/Cypriot chronology for the mid second millennium BC: assessing the evidence, interpretive frameworks, and current state of the debate |title=The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. III. Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna 28th of May – 1st of June 2003 |editor1-first=M |editor1-last=Bietak |place=Vienna, Austria |pages=101–137 |year=2003 |contribution-url=http://dendro.cornell.edu/articles/manning2007a.pdf |editor2-last=Czerny |editor2-first=E |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Archaeologist Kevin Walsh, accepting the radiocarbon dating, suggests a possible date of 1628 and believes this to be the most debated event in Mediterranean archaeology.<ref name=Walsh>{{cite book |last=Walsh |first=Kevin |title=The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes: Human-Environment Interaction from the Neolithic to the Roman Period |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521853019 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQJaAQAAQBAJ&q=eruption+Thera%7Csantorini&pg=PA20}}</ref> For the ANE chronology a key problem is the lack of a linkage between the eruption and some point on the floating chronology of the Middle Bronze Age in the ANE.

==See also==
*[[Egyptian chronology]]
*[[Minoan chronology]]
*[[List of Mesopotamian dynasties]]
*[[List of rulers of Elam]]
*[[List of Neo-Hittite kings]]
*[[List of kings of Ebla]]
*[[List of kings of Mari]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Bietak, M., "Problems of Middle Bronze Age Chronology: New Evidence from Egypt", AJA 88, pp.&nbsp;471–485, 1984
*Bietak, M., "The Middle Bronze Age of the Levant — A New Approach to Relative and Absolute Chronology", in Åström, P. ed. High, Middle or Low, Part 3, Gothenburg, pp.&nbsp;78–120, 1989
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30494975_Radiocarbon_Dating_in_Near-Eastern_Contexts_Confusion_and_Quality_Control] Johannes van der Plicht1 and Hendrik J Bruins, "Radiocarbon Dating in Near-Eastern Contexts: Confusion and Quality Control", Radiocarbon, vol.  43, no. 3, pp.&nbsp;1155–1166, January 2006
*[https://hal.science/hal-03090272v9] Gerard Gertoux, "Mesopotamian chronology over the period 2340–539 BCE through astronomically dated synchronisms and comparison with carbon-14 dating", ASOR 2019 Annual Meeting, Richard Coffman, Nov 2019, San Diego CA, United States, 2023
*Grigoriev, Stanislav, "Chronology of the Seima-Turbino bronzes, early Shang Dynasty and Santorini eruption", Praehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. 98, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;569–588, 2023
*[https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/81377418/1_s2.0_S0048969719302773_main_1_.pdf] Neocleous, A., Azzopardi, G., & Dee, M. W., "Identification of possible δ14C anomalies since 14 ka BP: A computational intelligence approach", Science of the Total Environment, vol. 663, pp.&nbsp;162–169, 2019 {{doi|10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.251}}
*Albrecht Goetze, "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 18, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;97–101, 1964
*Manning, Sturt W., et al., "Dating the Thera (Santorini) eruption: archaeological and scientific evidence supporting a high chronology". Antiquity 88.342, pp.&nbsp;1164–1179, 2014
*Miller, Jared L., "Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibḫururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text1", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 34, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;252–293, 2007
*Otto, Adelheid, "From Pottery to Chronology: The Middle Euphrates Region in Late Bronze Age Syria", Proceedings of the International Workshop in Mainz (Germany), May 5–7, 2012, Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag 2018
*Ramsey, Christopher Bronk, et al., "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt", Science, vol. 328, no. 5985, pp.&nbsp;1554–57, 2010
*[https://www.assyriologie.uni-muenchen.de/personen/professoren/sallaberger/publ_sallaberger/wasa_schrakamp_2015_arcane1.pdf] Walther Sallaberger and Ingo Schrakam, "Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean: History and Philology (Arcane)", Brepols Publishers (4 March 2015) {{ISBN|978-2503534947}}
*Glenn Schwartz, "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region", in Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp.&nbsp;450–452, 2008 {{ISBN|978-0300141436}}
*[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A587B892D599EBB4417186EFBD316CF7/S003382222300036Xa.pdf/towards_a_radiocarbonbased_chronology_of_urban_northern_mesopotamia_in_the_early_to_midsecond_millennium_bc_initial_results_from_kurd_qaburstan.pdf] Webster, Lyndelle C., et al., "Towards a Radiocarbon-Based Chronology of Urban Northern Mesopotamia in the Early to Mid-Second Millennium BC: Initial Results from Kurd Qaburstan", Radiocarbon, pp.&nbsp;1–16, 2023
*H. Weiss et al., "The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization", Science, vol. 261, iss. 5124, pp.&nbsp;995–1004, 20 August 1993

==External links==
*[https://cdli.ucla.edu/ Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative]
*[http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature]
*[https://github.com/apalmisano82/NERD NERD (Near East Radiocarbon Dates)]

[[Category:Chronology|Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East|Chronology]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Alternative chronologies]]