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{{Short description|
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
[[File:Ancient Orient.png|thumb|Ancient Near East]]
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For the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd]] and [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] millennia BC, this correlation is less certain but the following periods can be distinguished:
<ref>
*[[Early Bronze Age]]: Following the rise of cuneiform writing in the preceding [[Uruk period]] and [[Jemdet Nasr period]]s came a series of rulers and dynasties whose existence is based mostly on scant contemporary sources (e.g. [[En-me-barage-si]]), combined with archaeological cultures, some of which are considered problematic (e.g. [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic II]]). The lack of dendrochronology, astronomical correlations, and sparsity of modern, well-stratified sequences of radiocarbon dates from Southern Mesopotamia makes it difficult to assign absolute dates to this floating chronology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wencel|first=Maciej Mateusz|date=2017|title=Radiocarbon Dating of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia: Results, Limitations, and Prospects|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033822216000606/type/journal_article|journal=Radiocarbon|language=en|volume=59|issue=2|pages=635–645|doi=10.1017/RDC.2016.60|bibcode=2017Radcb..59..635W |s2cid=133337438|issn=0033-8222|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029010710/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/radiocarbon-dating-of-early-dynastic-mesopotamia-results-limitations-and-prospects/D8F82A41667C5281AABF18B5899CE04E|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Zaina2015" />
*[[Middle Bronze Age]]: Beginning with the [[Akkadian Empire]] around 2300 BC, the chronological evidence becomes internally more consistent. A good picture can be drawn of who succeeded whom, and synchronisms between [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]] and the more robust [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]] can be established. Unlike the previous period there are a variety of data points serving to help turn this floating chronology into a fixed one. These include astronomical events, dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating, and even a volcanic eruption. Despite this no agreement has been reached. The most commonly seen solution is to place the reign of Hammurabi from 1792 to 1750 BC, the "middle chronology", but there is far from a consensus.<ref name="arxiv.org">[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311114.pdf] V.G.Gurzadyan, "Astronomy and the Fall of Babylon", Sky & Telescope, vol. 100, no.1 (July), pp. 40–45, 2000</ref><ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/014ABB912CC50181E0F06E074BE071A2/S0003598X23000303a.pdf/new-evidence-for-middle-bronze-age-chronology-from-the-syro-anatolian-frontier.pdf] Herrmann, Virginia R., et al., "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", Antiquity, pp. 1-20, 2023</ref>
*[[Late Bronze Age]]: The fall of the First Babylonian Empire was followed by a period of chaos where "Late Old Babylonian royal inscriptions are few and the year names become less evocative of political events, early Kassite evidence is even scarcer, and until recently Sealand I sources were near to non-existent".<ref>[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/92651/3/Boivin_Odette_201611_PhD_thesis.pdf] Boivin, O., "The First Dynasty of the Sealand in History and Tradition", Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto Canada, 2016</ref> Afterward came a period of stability with the Assyrian Middle Kingdom, Hittite New Kingdom, and the Third Babylon Dynasty (Kassite).
*The [[Bronze Age collapse]]: A "Dark Age" begins with the fall of Babylonian Dynasty III (Kassite) around 1200 BC, the invasions of the [[Sea Peoples]] and the collapse of the [[Hittite Empire]].<ref>
*[[Early Iron Age]]: Around 900 BC, written records once again become more numerous with the rise of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], establishing relatively secure absolute dates. Classical sources such as the [[Canon of Ptolemy]], the works of [[Berossus]], and the [[Hebrew Bible]] provide chronological support and synchronisms. An inscription from the tenth year of Assyrian king [[Ashur-Dan III]] refers to an eclipse of the sun, and astronomical calculations among the range of plausible years date the eclipse to 15 June 763 BC. This can be corroborated by other mentions of astronomical events, and a secure [[Absolute dating|absolute chronology]] established, tying the relative chronologies to the now-dominant [[Gregorian calendar]].
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* Long Chronology (sack of Babylon 1651 BC)<ref>Huber, Peter J., "Reviewed Work(s): Dating the Fall of Babylon. A reappraisal of second-millennium
chronology by H. Gasche, J. A. Armstrong, S. W. Cole and V. G. Gurzadyan", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 46/47, pp. 287–90, 1999</ref>
* Middle Chronology (sack of Babylon 1595 BC)<ref>Brinkman, J. A., "Mesopotamian Chronology of the Historical Period", in A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia. 2nd revised (by E. Reiner) ed. Chicago: University Press of Chicago, pp. 335–48, 1977</ref><ref>Höflmayer, Felix, and Sturt W. Manning, "A synchronized early Middle Bronze Age chronology for Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 81.1, pp. 1–24, 2022</ref>
* Middle Low Chronology (sack of Babylon 1587 BC)<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology|first1=Sturt W.|last1=Manning|first2=Carol B.|last2=Griggs|first3=Brita|last3=Lorentzen|first4=Gojko|last4=Barjamovic|first5=Christopher Bronk|last5=Ramsey|first6=Bernd|last6=Kromer|first7=Eva Maria|last7=Wild|date=13 July 2016|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0157144|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0157144|pmid = 27409585|pmc = 4943651|bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157144M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Sturt|last2=Barjamovic|first2=Gojko|last3=Lorentzen|first3=Brita|date=2017-03-01|title=The Course of 14C Dating Does Not Run Smooth: Tree-Rings, Radiocarbon, and Potential Impacts of a Calibration Curve Wiggle on Dating Mesopotamian Chronology|url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/19979/19587|journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections|language=en|volume=13|pages=70–81|issn=1944-2815|access-date=1 November 2021
* Short Chronology (sack of Babylon 1531 BC)<ref>Amanda H. Podany, "Hana and the Low Chronology", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 1, pp.
*Ultra Short Chronology (sack of Babylon 1499 BC)<ref name="ultra" />
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===Astronomical===
====Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa====
[[File:Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa.jpg|thumb|Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa]]
In the series, the conjunction of the rise of Venus with the new moon provides a point of reference, or rather three points, for the conjunction is a [[Periodic function|periodic]] occurrence. Identifying a conjunction during the reign of king [[Ammisaduqa]] with one of these calculated conjunctions will therefore fix, for example, the accession of Hammurabi as either 1848, 1792, or 1736 BC, known as the "high" ("long"), "[[Middle chronology|middle]]", and [[Short chronology|"short (or low) chronology"]].
A record of the movements of Venus over roughly a 16-day period during the reign of a king, believed to be Ammisaduqa of the First Babylonian Dynasty, has been preserved on a tablet called [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]] ([[Enuma Anu Enlil]] 63). Twenty copies and fragments have been recovered, all Neo-Assyrian and later.
<ref>[http://ww.caeno.org/pdf/Reiner_Ammizaduga%20BPO%201975.pdf] Erica Reiner and David Pingree, "BM 2/1. Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part I: The Venus Tablet", Udena, 1975 {{ISBN|0-89003-010-3}}</ref> An example entry is
"In month XI, 15th day, Venus in the west disappeared, 3 days in the sky it stayed away, and in month XI, 18th day, Venus in the east became visible: springs will open, Adad his rain, Ea his floods will bring, king to king messages of reconciliation will send."<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Teije-De-Jong-2/publication/254913983_A_new_look_at_the_Venus_observations_of_Ammisaduqa_traces_of_the_Santorini_eruption_in_the_atmosphere_of_Babylon/links/5512f9f80cf23203199a0ccb/A-new-look-at-the-Venus-observations-of-Ammisaduqa-traces-of-the-Santorini-eruption-in-the-atmosphere-of-Babylon.pdf] T. de Jong andV. Foertmeyer, "A new look at the Venus observations of Ammisaduqa: traces of the Santorini eruption in the atmosphere of Babylon?", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap "Ex Oriente Lux", vol. 42, pp.
Using it, various scholars have proposed dates for the fall of Babylon based on the 56/64-year cycle of Venus. It has been suggested that the fundamental 8-year cycle of Venus is a better metric, leading to the proposal of an "ultra-low" chronology.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311036.pdf] Gurzadyan, V. G., "The Venus Tablet and Refraction", ''Akkadica'', vol. 124, pp. 13–17, 2003</ref> Other researchers have declared the data to be too noisy for any use in fixing the chronology.<ref>[http://www.caeno.org/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf]{{cite book |last1=Gasche |first1=H. |title=Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology |last2=Armstrong |first2=J.A. |last3=Cole |first3=S.W. |last4=Gurzadyan |first4=V.G. |publisher=University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |year=1998 |isbn=978-1885923103}}</ref><ref>H. Gasche, et al., "A Correction to 'The Fall of Babylon. A
====Eclipses====
A number of lunar and solar eclipses have been suggested for use in dating the ancient Near East. Many suffer from the vagueness of the original tablets in showing that an actual eclipse occurred. At that point, it becomes a question of using computer models to show when a given eclipse would have been visible at a site, complicated by difficulties in modeling the slowing rotation of the earth ([[ΔT (timekeeping)|ΔT]]) and uncertainty about the lengths of months.
<ref>[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/2006POBeo..80..251B] B. Banjevic, "Ancient eclipses and dating the fall of Babylon", Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade, vol. 80, pp. 251–257, May 2006</ref><ref>[https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0022_20210907.pdf] Peter J. Huber, "Third Millennium BC Chronology and Clock-Time Correction", Cuneiform Digital Library Preprints, no. 22, CDLI, 8 September 2021</ref>
Most calculations for dating using eclipses have assumed the Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa to be a legitimate source.<ref name="ultra"/><ref>Mitchell, Wayne A., "Ancient Astronomical Observations and Near Eastern Chronology", ''JACF'', vol. 3, pp.
Some important examples:
*[[Assyrian eclipse|Nineveh eclipse]] – a short text found in an Assyrian list of royal officials (''[[limmu|limmū]]'') which says the following: "Bur-Sagale of [[Tell Halaf|Guzana]], revolt in the city of [[Assur|Ashur]]. In the month Simanu an eclipse of the sun took place." Bur-Sagale was the name of the royal official. The text was part of the [[Eponym dating system]]. This eclipse is considered to be solidly dated to 15 June 763 BC,
*[[Mursili's eclipse]] – a text in the 10th year of the reign of Mursili II of the [[Hittite Empire]], "[When] I marched [to the land of A]zzi, the Sungod gave a sign.", has been interpreted as an eclipse event. Proposed dates range between 1340 BC and 1308 BC.<ref>Theo P. J. Van Den Hout, The Purity of Kingship: An Edition of CTH 569 and Related Hittite Oracle Inquiries of Tutẖaliya, 1998</ref><ref>Gautschy, R., "Remarks Concerning the Alleged Solar Eclipse of Muršili II.", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 2017. {{doi|10.1515/aofo-2017-0004}}</ref><ref>Devecchi, E., Miller, J.L., "Hittite-Egyptian synchronisms and their consequences for ancient Near Eastern chronology", in J. Mynářová (ed), Egypt and the Near East – The Crossroads. Proceedings of an International Conference on the Relations of Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, Prague, Charles University, pp.
*Shulgi Eclipse – Based on a prophecy text called ''[[Enuma Anu Enlil]] 20'' which states "If an eclipse occurs on the 14th day of Simānu ... The king of Ur, his son will wrong him, and the son who wronged his father, Šamaš will catch him. He will die in the mourning place of his father" from the end of the reign of [[Shulgi]] of the [[Ur III]] dynasty. A date of 25 July 2093 BC has been proposed. These prophecies were written after the fact to help predict future events. A second prophecy, EAE 21 (month 12), predicts the fall of Ur III in the reign of [[Ibbi-Sin]] stating "If an eclipse occurs on the 14th day of Addaru ... The prediction is given for the king of the world: The destruction of Ur".<ref>Peter J. Huber, "Astronomy and Ancient Chronology", Akkadica 119–120, pp. 159–176, 2000</ref>
*Babylon Eclipse – Another section in EAE 20 (month 3) refers to the fall of Babylon i.e. "if an eclipse occurs on the 14th day of Shabattu (month XI), and the god, in his eclipse ... The prediction is given for Babylon: the destruction of Babylon is near ...". It refers to a solar eclipse followed by a lunar eclipse. The most likely solution, 1547 BC, does not match up with Venus Tablet solutions. There are textual problems with the prophecy and it has been suggested that Akkad is actually the city in question.<ref>{{citation|arxiv=2007.07141|title=The Double Eclipse at the Downfall of Old Babylon|year=2020|last1=Khalisi|first1=Emil}}</ref>
*Tell Muhammad Eclipse – At [[Tell Muhammad]] several tablets, silver loan contracts, were found that were dated with two year names "Year 38 after Babylon was resettled" and "The year that the Moon was eclipsed". The former year name is of a format used by the Kassites, a change from the event format used through the Old Babylonian period. Attempts have been made to use this eclipse to date the sack of Babylon and its resettlement by the Kassites.<ref>Calderbank, Daniel, "Dispersed Communities of Practice During the First Dynasty of the Sealand: The Pottery from Tell Khaiber, Southern Iraq", Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 58–87, 2020</ref><ref name="arxiv.org"/><ref>Gasche, Hermann, and Michel Tanret, eds., "Changing Watercourses in Babylonia: Towards a Reconstruction of the Ancient Environment in Lower Mesopotamia", Volume 1. Mesopotamian History and Environment Series II Memoirs V. Ghent and Chicago: University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1998</ref>
====Egyptian lunar observations====
There are thirteen Egyptian New Kingdom lunar observations which are used to pin the chronology in that period by locking down the accession year of Ramsesses II to 1279 BC. There are a number of issues with this including a) the regnal lengths for [[Neferneferuaten]], [[Seti I]], and [[Horemheb]] are actually not known with accuracy, b) where the observations occurred (Memphis is usually assumed), c) what day the observations were taken (two are known to be the 1st lunar day), and d) the Egyptian calendar for this period is not fully known, especially how intercalary months were handled.<ref>Gautschy, Rita. "A Reassessment of the Absolute Chronology of the Egyptian New Kingdom and its 'Brotherly' Countries" Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 24, pp. 141–58, 2014</ref> Since the Assyrian eponym list is accurate to
====Kudurru symbols====
A number of attempts have been made to date Kassite [[Kudurru]] stone documents by mapping the symbols to astrononomical elements, using [[Babylonian star catalogues]] such as [[MUL.APIN]] with so far very limited results.<ref>Tuman, V.S., "Astronomical Dating of the Kudurru IM 80908", Sumer, vol. 46, pp.
===Inscriptional===
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*Provenance
The site of an item's recovery is an important piece of information for archaeologists, which can be compromised by two factors. First, in ancient times old materials were often reused as building material or fill, sometimes at a great distance from the original location. Secondly, looting has disturbed archaeological sites at least back to Roman times, making the provenance of looted objects difficult or impossible to determine. Lastly, counterfeit versions of these object are a longstanding traditional, often difficult to detect.<ref>Michel, Cécile. "Cuneiform Fakes: A Long History from Antiquity to the Present Day". Fakes and Forgeries of Written Artefacts from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern China, edited by Cécile Michel and Michael Friedrich, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp.
*Multiple versions
Key documents like the ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' were repeatedly copied and redacted over generations to suit current political needs. For this and other reasons, the Sumerian King List, once regarded as an important historical source, is now only used with caution, if at all, for the period under discussion here.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last=Marchesi|first=Gianni|date=2010|title=The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia|url=https://www.academia.edu/10052536|journal=M. G. Biga
*Translation
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*[[Sumerian King List]]
[[File:Sumerian King List, 1800 BC, Larsa, Iraq (detail).jpg|thumb|Sumerian King List]]
Covers rulers of Mesopotamia from a time "before [[Eridu Genesis|the flood]]" to the fall of the [[Dynasty of Isin|Isin Dynasty]], depending on the version. Its use for pre-Akkadian rulers is limited to none. It continues to have value for the Akkadian period and later.<ref name=":122"/> The ''Sumerian King List'' omits any mention of [[Lagash]], even though it was clearly a major power during the period covered by the list. The Royal Chronicle of Lagash appears to be an attempt to remedy that omission, listing the kings of Lagash in the form of a chronicle though some scholars believe the Lagash chronicle to be either a parody of the ''Sumerian King List'' or a complete fabrication.<ref name=glassner>Jean-Jacques Glassner, ''Mesopotamian Chronicles'' (2004) {{ISBN|1-58983-090-3}}</ref>
*[[List of kings of Babylon#Sources|Babylonian King List]]
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Most available chronicles stem from later Babylonian and Assyrian sources. The
[[Dynastic Chronicle]], after a Sumerian King List type beginning, involves
Babylonian kings from [[Simbar-shipak|Simbar-Šipak]] ({{Circa}} 1021–1004 BC) to [[Eriba-Marduk|Erība-Marduk]] ({{Circa}} 769 – 761 BC). The [[Chronicle of Early Kings]], after an early preamble, involves kings of the First Babylonian Empire ending with the First Sealand Dynasty. The [[Tummal Inscription]] relates events from
[[Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle]], among others.
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Unlike current calendars, most ancient calendars were based on the accession of the current ruler, as in "the 5th year in the reign of Hammurabi". Each royal year was also given a title reflecting a deed of the ruler, like "the year Ur was defeated". The compilation of these years are called date lists.
<ref>[http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/yn_index.html] Marcel Sigrist and Peter Damerow, "Mesopotamian Year Names: Neo-Sumerian and Old Babylonian Date Formulae", CDLI at UCLA</ref><ref>Baqir, Taha, "Date-formulae and date-lists from Harmal.", Sumer, vol. 5, no. 1, pp.
====Eponym (limmu) lists====
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Berossus, a Babylonian astronomer and historian born during the time of
[[Alexander the Great]] wrote a history of Babylon which is
a [[lost book]]. Portions were preserved by other classical writers,
mainly [[Josephus]] via [[Alexander Polyhistor]]. The surviving material
is in chronicle form and covers the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] period from
Nabopolassar (627–605 BC) to Nabonidus (556–539 BC).
<ref>[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111163949/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
*Canon of Ptolemy ([[Canon of Kings]])
This book provides a list of kings starting with the Neo-Babylonian Empire and ending with the early Roman Emperors. The entries relevant to the ancient Near East run from Nabonassar (747–734 BC) to the Macedonian king Alexander IV
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{{Main|Dendrochronology}}
Dendrochronology attempts to use the variable growth pattern of trees, expressed in their rings, to build up a chronological timeline. At present there are no continuous chronologies for the Near East, and a floating chronology has been developed using trees in Anatolia for the Bronze and Iron Ages. Professor of archaeology at Cornell, Sturt Manning, has spearheaded efforts to use this floating chronology with radiocarbon wiggle-match to anchor the chronology.<ref>
===Radiocarbon dating===
{{Main|Radiocarbon Dating}}
As in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, radiocarbon dates run one or two centuries earlier than the dates proposed by archaeologists.<ref>Höflmayer, Felix, "Radiocarbon Dating and Egyptian Chronology—From the “Curve of Knowns” to Bayesian Modeling", The Oxford Handbook of Topics in Archaeology (online edn, Oxford Academic, 2 Oct. 2014), {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.64}}</ref> Recently, radiocarbon dates from the final destruction of [[Ebla]] have been shown to definitely favour the middle chronology (with the fall of Babylon and Aleppo at c. 1595 BC), and seem to discount the ultra-low chronology (same event at c. 1499 BC), although it is emphasized that this is not presented as a decisive argument.<ref>Matthiae, P., "The Destruction of Old Syrian Ebla", in Matthiae, P., Pinnock, F., Nigro, L. and Peyronel, L. (eds.) From relative chronology to absolute chronology: The second millennium BC in Syria-Palestine, Contributi del Centro Linceo Interdisciplinare "Beniamino Segre" N. 117. Roma, pp. 5–32, 2007</ref>
Radiocarbon dates in literature should be discounted if they do not include the raw C14 date and the calibration method. There have also been issues with dating for charcoal samples, which may reflect much older wood the charcoal was made from. There are also calibration issues with annual and regional C14 variations.<ref>Dee, Michael W., and Benjamin J. S. Pope, "Anchoring Historical Sequences Using a New Source of Astro-Chronological Tie-Points", Proceedings: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 472, no. 2192, pp. 1–11, 2016</ref> A further problem is that earlier archaeological dates used traditional radiocarbon dating while newer results sometimes come from [[Radiocarbon dating#Accelerator mass spectrometry|Accelerator mass spectrometry]] (AMS) radiocarbon dating which is more accurate. In recent years some properly calibrated radiocarbon dates have begun to appear:
*In 1991 Two grain samples from the Middle Uruk layer of the Uruk Mound at [[Abu Salabikh]] were accelerator radiocarbon dated with calibrated dates of 3520 ± 130 BC.<ref>Susan Pollock, Caroline Steele and Melody Pope, "Investigations on the Uruk Mound, Abu Salabikh, 1990", Iraq, vol. 53, pp. 59–68, 1991</ref> Calibration was based on that of Pearson.<ref>Pearson, G. W. et al., "High precision 14C measurement of Irish oaks to show the natural 14C variation from a.d. 1840 to 5210 b.c.", Radiocarbon 28, pp.
*In 2013 a bone awl from [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] from Phase 2 in the YWN area, the transition between [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] and Akkadian periods, was accelerator radiocarbon dated to 2471–2299 BC (3905 ± 27 C14 years BP).<ref name="Zaina2015"
*In 2017 charcoal sample from the base area of the Umm Al Nar fortress tower at [[Tell Abraq]] provided a radiocarbon date of 2461–2199 BC (3840±40 C14 years BP). It was calibrated with IntCal13. The [[Umm Al Nar culture|Umm Al Nar]] period is co-temporal with the Akkadian through Ur III periods in Mesopotamia.<ref>Magee, Peter, et al., "Tell Abraq during the second and first millennia BC: Site layout, spatial organisation, and economy", Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 28.2, pp.
Other emerging technical dating methods include [[rehydroxylation dating]], [[luminescence dating]], [[archaeomagnetic dating]] and the dating of lime plaster from structures.<ref name="WilsonCHH09">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Moira A. | last2 = Carter | first2 = Margaret A. | last3 = Hall | first3 = Christopher | last4 = Hoff | first4 = William D. | last5 = Ince | first5 = Ceren | last6 = Wilson | first6 = Moira A. | last7 = Savage | first7 = Shaun D. | last8 = McKay | first8 = Bernard | last9 = Betts | first9 = Ian M. | title = Dating fired-clay ceramics using long-term power law rehydroxylation kinetics | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society A | volume = 465 | issue = 2108 | pages = 2407–2415 | date = 8 August 2009 | doi = 10.1098/rspa.2009.0117 | bibcode = 2009RSPSA.465.2407W | s2cid = 59491943 | url = http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/465/2108/2407.full.pdf | access-date = 1 April 2020
===Synchronisms===
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At least as far back as the reign of [[Thutmose I]], Egypt took a strong interest in the ancient Near East. At times they occupied portions of the region, a favor returned later by the Assyrians. Some key synchronisms:
*[[Battle of Kadesh]], involving [[Ramses II]] of Egypt ("Year 5 III Shemu day 9") and [[Muwatalli II]] of the Hittite empire. This would be 12 May 1274 BC, in the usually accepted Egyptian chronology.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/cu31924082479241] James Henry Breasted, "Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest", Ancient Records, Second Series, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 1906</ref> Recorded by both Egyptian ([[Kadesh inscriptions]]) and Hittite records.
*Peace treaty ([[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty]]) between Ramses II of Egypt, in his 21st year of reign (roughly 1259 BC) and [[Hattusili III]] of the Hittites. Hieroglyphic copies were found at the temple of Amun at Karnak and at the Ramesseumand. Fragmentary Akkadian cuneiform fragments were found at [[Hattusa]].<ref>Sürenhagen, Dietrich, "Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty", British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan (BMSAES), vol. 6, pp. 59–67, 2006</ref>
*[[Amenhotep III]] (Amenophis III) marries the daughter of [[Shuttarna II]] of [[Mitanni]]. There is also a record of messages from the pharaoh to [[Kadashman-Enlil I]] of Babylon in the Amarna Letter (EA1–5). Other Amarna letters link Amenhotep III to [[Burnaburiash II]] of Babylon (EA6) and [[Tushratta]] of Mitanni (EA17–29) as well.
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*Pottery seals of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian pharaoh [[Pepi I]] have been found in the wreckage of the city of [[Ebla]], destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad.<ref>Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, "A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 55, pp. 1–44, 2003</ref>
There are problems with using Egyptian chronology. Besides some minor issues of regnal lengths and overlaps, there are three long periods of poorly documented chaos in the history of ancient Egypt, the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First]], [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second]], and [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Periods]], whose lengths are doubtful.<ref>Thijs, Ad., "The Burial of Psusennes I and “The Bad Times” of P. Brooklyn 16.205", Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 141, no. 2, pp.
====Indus Valley====
{{Main|Indus Valley civilisation}}
There is much evidence that the Bronze Age civilization of the [[Indus Valley]] traded with the Near East, including clay seals found at Ur III and in the Persian Gulf.<ref>Gadd, C. J., "Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur". Proceedings of the British Academy 18, pp. 191–210, 1932</ref> Seals and beads were also found at the site of [[Esnunna]].<ref>Henri Frankfort, "The Indus civilization and the Near East", Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology for 1932, Leyden, VI, pp.
====Thera and Eastern Mediterranean====
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Goods from Greece made their way into the ancient Near East, directly in Anatolia and via the island of [[Cyprus]] in the rest of the region and Egypt. A Hittite king, Tudhaliya IV, even captured Cyprus as part of an attempt to enforce a blockade of the Assyrians.<ref>Urbanism on Late Bronze Age Cyprus: LC II in Retrospect, Ora Negbi, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, iss. 337, pp. 1–45, Feb 2005</ref>
[[File:Santorini ASTER.jpg|thumb|Santorini/Thera]]
The [[
==See also==
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==Further reading==
*Bietak, M., "Problems of Middle Bronze Age Chronology: New Evidence from Egypt", AJA 88, pp.
*Bietak, M., "The Middle Bronze Age of the Levant — A New Approach to Relative and Absolute Chronology", in Åström, P. ed. High, Middle or Low, Part 3, Gothenburg, pp.
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30494975_Radiocarbon_Dating_in_Near-Eastern_Contexts_Confusion_and_Quality_Control] Johannes van der Plicht1 and Hendrik J Bruins, "Radiocarbon Dating in Near-Eastern Contexts: Confusion and Quality Control", Radiocarbon, vol. 43, no. 3, pp.
*[https://hal.science/hal-03090272v9] Gerard Gertoux, "Mesopotamian chronology over the period
*Grigoriev, Stanislav, "Chronology of the Seima-Turbino bronzes, early Shang Dynasty and Santorini eruption", Praehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. 98, no. 2, pp.
*[https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/81377418/1_s2.0_S0048969719302773_main_1_.pdf] Neocleous, A., Azzopardi, G., & Dee, M. W., "Identification of possible δ14C anomalies since 14 ka BP: A computational intelligence approach", Science of the Total Environment, vol. 663, pp.
*Albrecht Goetze, "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 18, no. 4, pp.
▲*[https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/81377418/1_s2.0_S0048969719302773_main_1_.pdf] Neocleous, A., Azzopardi, G., & Dee, M. W., "Identification of possible δ14C anomalies since 14 ka BP: A computational intelligence approach", Science of the Total Environment, vol. 663, pp. 162–169, 2019 {{doi|10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.251}}
*Manning, Sturt W., et al., "Dating the Thera (Santorini) eruption: archaeological and scientific evidence supporting a high chronology". Antiquity 88.342, pp.
▲*Albrecht Goetze, "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 97–101, 1964
*Miller, Jared L., "Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibḫururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text1", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 34, no. 2, pp.
▲*Manning, Sturt W., et al., "Dating the Thera (Santorini) eruption: archaeological and scientific evidence supporting a high chronology". Antiquity 88.342, pp. 1164-1179, 2014
▲*Miller, Jared L., "Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibḫururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text1", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 252–293, 2007
*Otto, Adelheid, "From Pottery to Chronology: The Middle Euphrates Region in Late Bronze Age Syria", Proceedings of the International Workshop in Mainz (Germany), May 5–7, 2012, Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag 2018
*Ramsey, Christopher Bronk, et al., "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt", Science, vol. 328, no. 5985, pp. 1554–57, 2010
*[https://www.assyriologie.uni-muenchen.de/personen/professoren/sallaberger/publ_sallaberger/wasa_schrakamp_2015_arcane1.pdf] Walther Sallaberger and Ingo Schrakam, "Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean: History and Philology (Arcane)", Brepols Publishers (4 March 2015) {{ISBN|978-2503534947}}
*Glenn Schwartz, "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region", in Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 450–452, 2008 {{ISBN|978-0300141436}}
*[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A587B892D599EBB4417186EFBD316CF7/S003382222300036Xa.pdf/towards_a_radiocarbonbased_chronology_of_urban_northern_mesopotamia_in_the_early_to_midsecond_millennium_bc_initial_results_from_kurd_qaburstan.pdf] Webster, Lyndelle C., et al., "Towards a Radiocarbon-Based Chronology of Urban Northern Mesopotamia in the Early to Mid-Second
*H. Weiss et al., "The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization", Science, vol. 261, iss. 5124, pp.
==External links==
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[[Category:Ancient Near East|Chronology]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Alternative chronologies]]
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