Chronology of the ancient Near East: Difference between revisions

<ref>[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0240799] Stuart| W.doi-access=free Manning et al.,| title=Beyond megadrought and collapse in the Northern Levant: The chronology of Tell Tayinat and two historical inflection episodes, around 4.2ka BP, and following 3.2ka BP, | date=2020 | last1=Manning | first1=Sturt W. | last2=Lorentzen | first2=Brita | last3=Welton | first3=Lynn | last4=Batiuk | first4=Stephen | last5=Harrison | first5=Timothy P. | journal=PLOS ONE, October| 29,volume=15 2020| issue=10 | pages=e0240799 | pmid=33119717 | pmc=7595433 | bibcode=2020PLoSO..1540799M }}</ref>

*[[Middle Bronze Age]]: Beginning with the [[Akkadian Empire]] around 2300 BC, the chronological evidence becomes internally more consistent. A good picture can be drawn of who succeeded whom, and synchronisms between [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]] and the more robust [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]] can be established. Unlike the previous period there are a variety of data points serving to help turn this floating chronology into a fixed one. These include astronomical events, dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating, and even a volcanic eruption. Despite this no agreement has been reached. The most commonly seen solution is to place the reign of Hammurabi from 1792 to 1750 BC, the "middle chronology", but there is far from a consensus.<ref name="arxiv.org">[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311114.pdf] V.G.Gurzadyan, "Astronomy and the Fall of Babylon", Sky & Telescope, vol. 100, no.1 (July), pp. 40–45, 2000</ref><ref>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/014ABB912CC50181E0F06E074BE071A2/S0003598X23000303a.pdf/new-evidence-for-middle-bronze-age-chronology-from-the-syro-anatolian-frontier.pdf] Herrmann, Virginia R., et al., "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", Antiquity, pp. 1-20, 2023</ref>

*The [[Bronze Age collapse]]: A "Dark Age" begins with the fall of Babylonian Dynasty III (Kassite) around 1200 BC, the invasions of the [[Sea Peoples]] and the collapse of the [[Hittite Empire]].<ref>[https://www{{cite journal | doi=10.nature.com/articles1038/s41586-022-05693-y] Manning,| Sturt W., et al., "title=Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 bc | date=2023 | last1=Manning | first1=Sturt W.", | last2=Kocik | first2=Cindy | last3=Lorentzen | first3=Brita | last4=Sparks | first4=Jed P. | journal=Nature | volume=614. | issue=7949, pp.| 719-724,pages=719–724 2023| pmid=36755095 | pmc=9946833 | bibcode=2023Natur.614..719M }}</ref>

* Middle Low Chronology (sack of Babylon 1587 BC)<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology|first1=Sturt W.|last1=Manning|first2=Carol B.|last2=Griggs|first3=Brita|last3=Lorentzen|first4=Gojko|last4=Barjamovic|first5=Christopher Bronk|last5=Ramsey|first6=Bernd|last6=Kromer|first7=Eva Maria|last7=Wild|date=13 July 2016|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0157144|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0157144|pmid = 27409585|pmc = 4943651|bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157144M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Sturt|last2=Barjamovic|first2=Gojko|last3=Lorentzen|first3=Brita|date=2017-03-01|title=The Course of 14C Dating Does Not Run Smooth: Tree-Rings, Radiocarbon, and Potential Impacts of a Calibration Curve Wiggle on Dating Mesopotamian Chronology|url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/19979/19587|journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections|language=en|volume=13|pages=70–81|issn=1944-2815|access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref><ref>Nahm, Werner, "The Case for the Lower Middle Chronology.", Altorientalische Forschungen vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 350–72, 2013</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323187651_Further_Astronomical_Fine-Tuning_of_the_Old_Assyrian_and_Old_Babylonian_Chronologies] Teije De Jong, "Further Astronomical Fine-Tuning of the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian Chronologies", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap "Ex Oriente Lux", vol. 46, pp. 127-143127–143, 2017</ref>

* Short Chronology (sack of Babylon 1531 BC)<ref>Amanda H. Podany, "Hana and the Low Chronology", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 49-7149–71, April 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Sturt W.|last2=Kromer|first2=Bernd|last3=Kuniholm|first3=Peter Ian|last4=Newton|first4=Maryanne W.|date=2001-12-21|title=Anatolian Tree Rings and a New Chronology for the East Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages|journal=Science|language=en|volume=294|issue=5551|pages=2532–2535|doi=10.1126/science.1066112|pmid=11743159|bibcode=2001Sci...294.2532M |s2cid=33497945|issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free}}</ref>

"In month XI, 15th day, Venus in the west disappeared, 3 days in the sky it stayed away, and in month XI, 18th day, Venus in the east became visible: springs will open, Adad his rain, Ea his floods will bring, king to king messages of reconciliation will send."<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Teije-De-Jong-2/publication/254913983_A_new_look_at_the_Venus_observations_of_Ammisaduqa_traces_of_the_Santorini_eruption_in_the_atmosphere_of_Babylon/links/5512f9f80cf23203199a0ccb/A-new-look-at-the-Venus-observations-of-Ammisaduqa-traces-of-the-Santorini-eruption-in-the-atmosphere-of-Babylon.pdf] T. de Jong andV. Foertmeyer, "A new look at the Venus observations of Ammisaduqa: traces of the Santorini eruption in the atmosphere of Babylon?", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap "Ex Oriente Lux", vol. 42, pp. 141-158141–158, 2010</ref>

Using it, various scholars have proposed dates for the fall of Babylon based on the 56/64-year cycle of Venus. It has been suggested that the fundamental 8-year cycle of Venus is a better metric, leading to the proposal of an "ultra-low" chronology.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311036.pdf] Gurzadyan, V. G., "The Venus Tablet and Refraction", ''Akkadica'', vol. 124, pp. 13–17, 2003</ref> Other researchers have declared the data to be too noisy for any use in fixing the chronology.<ref>[http://www.caeno.org/pdf/Gasche_Ammizaduga%20new%20chronology.pdf]{{cite book |last1=Gasche |first1=H. |title=Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology |last2=Armstrong |first2=J.A. |last3=Cole |first3=S.W. |last4=Gurzadyan |first4=V.G. |publisher=University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |year=1998 |isbn=978-1885923103}}</ref><ref>H. Gasche, et al., "A Correction to 'The Fall of Babylon. A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology'", Akkadica 108, pp. 1-41–4, 1998</ref>

Most calculations for dating using eclipses have assumed the Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa to be a legitimate source.<ref name="ultra"/><ref>Mitchell, Wayne A., "Ancient Astronomical Observations and Near Eastern Chronology", ''JACF'', vol. 3, pp. 7-267–26, 1990</ref> The most notable omitted eclipses are the [[Mari Eponym Chronicle]] eclipse from the time of Shamshi-Adad I and the [[Sargon of Akkad]] eclipse (from the Legends of the Kings of Akkad and a liver omen).<ref>[http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2002-1.pdf] C. Michel, "Nouvelles données pour la chronologie du IIe millénaire", Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires (NABU), issue 1, note 20, pp. 17-1817–18, 2002</ref><ref>Huber, Peter. "Dating of Akkad, Ur III, and Babylon I", Organization, Representation, and Symbols of Power in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 54th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Würzburg 20–25 Jul, edited by Gernot Wilhelm, University Park, US: Penn State University Press, pp. 715-734715–734, 2022</ref>

*[[Mursili's eclipse]] – a text in the 10th year of the reign of Mursili II of the [[Hittite Empire]], "[When] I marched [to the land of A]zzi, the Sungod gave a sign.", has been interpreted as an eclipse event. Proposed dates range between 1340 BC and 1308 BC.<ref>Theo P. J. Van Den Hout, The Purity of Kingship: An Edition of CTH 569 and Related Hittite Oracle Inquiries of Tutẖaliya, 1998</ref><ref>Gautschy, R., "Remarks Concerning the Alleged Solar Eclipse of Muršili II.", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 23–29, 2017. {{doi|10.1515/aofo-2017-0004}}</ref><ref>Devecchi, E., Miller, J.L., "Hittite-Egyptian synchronisms and their consequences for ancient Near Eastern chronology", in J. Mynářová (ed), Egypt and the Near East – The Crossroads. Proceedings of an International Conference on the Relations of Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, Prague, Charles University, pp. 139-176139–176, 2011</ref><ref>Miller, J.L., "Political interactions between Kassite Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt and Ḫatti during the Amarna Age", in A. Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke (eds), Karduniaš. Babylonia Under the Kassites, Berlin, de Gruyter, pp. 93-1193–11, 2017</ref>

*Tell Muhammad Eclipse -– At [[Tell Muhammad]] several tablets, silver loan contracts, were found that were dated with two year names "Year 38 after Babylon was resettled" and "The year that the Moon was eclipsed". The former year name is of a format used by the Kassites, a change from the event format used through the Old Babylonian period. Attempts have been made to use this eclipse to date the sack of Babylon and its resettlement by the Kassites.<ref>Calderbank, Daniel, "Dispersed Communities of Practice During the First Dynasty of the Sealand: The Pottery from Tell Khaiber, Southern Iraq", Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 58-8758–87, 2020</ref><ref>[https:// name="arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0311114.pdf] V.G.Gurzadyan, "Astronomy and the Fall of Babylon", Sky & Telescope, vol. 100, no.1 (July), pp. 40–45, 2000</ref><ref>Gasche, Hermann, and Michel Tanret, eds., "Changing Watercourses in Babylonia: Towards a Reconstruction of the Ancient Environment in Lower Mesopotamia", Volume 1. Mesopotamian History and Environment Series II Memoirs V. Ghent and Chicago: University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1998</ref>

A number of attempts have been made to date Kassite [[Kudurru]] stone documents by mapping the symbols to astrononomical elements, using [[Babylonian star catalogues]] such as [[MUL.APIN]] with so far very limited results.<ref>Tuman, V.S., "Astronomical Dating of the Kudurru IM 80908", Sumer, vol. 46, pp. 98-10698–106, 1989-19901989–1990</ref><ref>Pizzimenti, "The Kudurrus And The Sky. Analysis And Interpretation Of The Dog-Scorpion-Lamp Astral Pattern As Represented In Kassite Kudurrus Reliefs", February 2016 {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.220910}}</ref>

The site of an item's recovery is an important piece of information for archaeologists, which can be compromised by two factors. First, in ancient times old materials were often reused as building material or fill, sometimes at a great distance from the original location. Secondly, looting has disturbed archaeological sites at least back to Roman times, making the provenance of looted objects difficult or impossible to determine. Lastly, counterfeit versions of these object are a longstanding traditional, often difficult to detect.<ref>Michel, Cécile. "Cuneiform Fakes: A Long History from Antiquity to the Present Day". Fakes and Forgeries of Written Artefacts from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern China, edited by Cécile Michel and Michael Friedrich, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 25-6025–60, 2020</ref>

Key documents like the ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' were repeatedly copied and redacted over generations to suit current political needs. For this and other reasons, the Sumerian King List, once regarded as an important historical source, is now only used with caution, if at all, for the period under discussion here.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last=Marchesi|first=Gianni|date=2010|title=The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia|url=https://www.academia.edu/10052536|journal=M. G. Biga -– M. Liverani (Eds.), ana turri gimilli: Studi dedicati al Padre Werner R. Mayer, S. J., da amici e allievi (Vicino Oriente -– Quaderno 5; Roma)|pages=231–248|access-date=15 September 2021|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029070923/https://www.academia.edu/10052536|url-status=live}}</ref>

Covers rulers of Mesopotamia from a time "before [[Eridu Genesis|the flood]]" to the fall of the [[Dynasty of Isin|Isin Dynasty]], depending on the version. Its use for pre-Akkadian rulers is limited to none. It continues to have value for the Akkadian period and later.<ref name=":122"/> The ''Sumerian King List'' omits any mention of [[Lagash]], even though it was clearly a major power during the period covered by the list. The Royal Chronicle of Lagash appears to be an attempt to remedy that omission, listing the kings of Lagash in the form of a chronicle though some scholars believe the Lagash chronicle to be either a parody of the ''Sumerian King List'' or a complete fabrication.<ref name=glassner>Jean-Jacques Glassner, ''Mesopotamian Chronicles'' (2004) {{ISBN|1-58983-090-3}}</ref>

Babylonian kings from [[Simbar-shipak|Simbar-Šipak]] ({{Circa}} 1021–1004 BC) to [[Eriba-Marduk|Erība-Marduk]] ({{Circa}} 769 – 761 BC). The [[Chronicle of Early Kings]], after an early preamble, involves kings of the First Babylonian Empire ending with the First Sealand Dynasty. The [[Tummal Inscription]] relates events from the early Sumerian king [[Ishbi-Erra]] of Isin at the beginning of the second millennium BC. The [[Chronicle of the Market Prices]] mentions various Babylonian rulers beginning from the period of Hammurabi. The [[Eclectic Chronicle]] relates events of the post-Kassite Babylonian kings. Other examples are the [[Religious Chronicle]], and

<ref>[http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/yn_index.html] Marcel Sigrist and Peter Damerow, "Mesopotamian Year Names: Neo-Sumerian and Old Babylonian Date Formulae", CDLI at UCLA</ref><ref>Baqir, Taha, "Date-formulae and date-lists from Harmal.", Sumer, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 34-8634–86, January 1949</ref><ref>de Boer, Rients. "Studies on the Old Babylonian Kings of Isin and Their Dynasties with an Updated List of Isin Year Names" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 5-275–27, 2021</ref>

<ref>[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111163949/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37677083/STOL-VanderSpek-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1636651959&Signature=fXVdVe-LdD7LLre9oYy0s-vTDqY5Ys155kbdMif~MifUp2P0Yom59yFnaZxsokmDhZAnzWKpAGTNFKqf4~HmuYOJLYONgRWmZhkwAzPyARFE2GzA4tVycXokpMZTv4el1rsmMSGFBJwBZhzxsjt4Rp2wP~Zo5ne6YYpSgqWfn7sAyGeX30DlWlzYRbEO6zOF-JKuHItKUhbwgIR2FcoKxdwX3l3Qi5Hn8mhgMEqYmqeyC2DO5iA9OBXHXQR1MjFqu20~UcTPt-DEefITS2DxLx0FI40CYVvppYbHsGhtBGl18M6BierotxCpouwFDGsVrgidMOJS6no1RwyV4eWjhw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |date=11 November 2021 }} R.J. (Bert) van der Spek, "Berossus as a Babylonian chronicler and Greek historian", in: R.J. van der Spek et al. eds. Studies in Ancient Near Eastern World View and Society presented to Marten Stol on the occasion of his 65th birthday, 10 November 2005, and his retirement from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, pp. 277–318, Bethesda MD: CDL Press, 2008</ref>

Dendrochronology attempts to use the variable growth pattern of trees, expressed in their rings, to build up a chronological timeline. At present there are no continuous chronologies for the Near East, and a floating chronology has been developed using trees in Anatolia for the Bronze and Iron Ages. Professor of archaeology at Cornell, Sturt Manning, has spearheaded efforts to use this floating chronology with radiocarbon wiggle-match to anchor the chronology.<ref>[https://www{{cite journal | doi=10.nature.com/articles1038/s41598-020-69287-2] Sturt| W. Manning et al., "title=Radiocarbon offsets and old world chronology as relevant to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia and Thera (Santorini)", Nature| date=2020 | last1=Manning | first1=Sturt W. | last2=Wacker | first2=Lukas | last3=Büntgen | first3=Ulf | last4=Bronk Ramsey | first4=Christopher | last5=Dee | first5=Michael W. | last6=Kromer | first6=Bernd | last7=Lorentzen | first7=Brita | last8=Tegel | first8=Willy | journal=Scientific Reports, vol.| volume=10, 17| Augustissue=1 2020| page=13785 {{doi|10 pmid=32807792 | pmc=7431540 | bibcode=2020NatSR.1038/s41598-020-69287-2.1013785M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Sturt W. |last2=Griggs |first2=Carol B. |last3=Lorentzen |first3=Brita |last4=Barjamovic |first4=Gojko |last5=Ramsey |first5=Christopher Bronk |last6=Kromer |first6=Bernd |last7=Wild |first7=Eva Maria |date=2016-07-13 |title=Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=e0157144 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0157144 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4943651 |pmid=27409585|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1157144M |doi-access=free }}</ref> His research has recently been included in the Oxford History of the Ancient Near East and has been cited widely in the recent academic literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Höflmayer |first=Felix |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume II |date=2022-08-18 |chapter=Establishing an Absolute Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age |pages=1–46 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/43915/chapter/370990214 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687571.003.0011 |isbn=978-0190687571 |access-date=22 December 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901043627/https://academic.oup.com/book/43915/chapter/370990214 |url-status=live }}</ref> A new method has been developed to combine dendrochronology with [[Miyake event]]s to extend the range to other areas.<ref>Andrej Maczkowski et al, "Absolute dating of the European Neolithic using the 5259 BC rapid 14C excursion", Nature Communications, 2024 {{doi|10.1038/s41467-024-48402-1}}</ref>

*In 1991 Two grain samples from the Middle Uruk layer of the Uruk Mound at [[Abu Salabikh]] were accelerator radiocarbon dated with calibrated dates of 3520 ± 130 BC.<ref>Susan Pollock, Caroline Steele and Melody Pope, "Investigations on the Uruk Mound, Abu Salabikh, 1990", Iraq, vol. 53, pp. 59–68, 1991</ref> Calibration was based on that of Pearson.<ref>Pearson, G. W. et al., "High precision 14C measurement of Irish oaks to show the natural 14C variation from a.d. 1840 to 5210 b.c.", Radiocarbon 28, pp. 911-34911–34, 1986</ref>

*In 2013 a bone awl from [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] from Phase 2 in the YWN area, the transition between [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] and Akkadian periods, was accelerator radiocarbon dated to 2471–2299 BC (3905 ± 27 C14 years BP).<ref name="Zaina2015" >[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289504251_A_Radiocarbon_Date_from_Early_Dynastic_Kishand_the_Stratigraphy_and_Chronology_of_the_YWN_sounding_at_Tell_Ingharra] Zaina, F., "A Radiocarbon date from Early Dynastic Kish and the Stratigraphy and Chronology of the YWN sounding at Tell Ingharra", Iraq, vol. 77(1), pp. 225–234, 2015</ref>

*In 2017 charcoal sample from the base area of the Umm Al Nar fortress tower at [[Tell Abraq]] provided a radiocarbon date of 2461–2199 BC (3840±40 C14 years BP). It was calibrated with IntCal13. The [[Umm Al Nar culture|Umm Al Nar]] period is co-temporal with the Akkadian through Ur III periods in Mesopotamia.<ref>Magee, Peter, et al., "Tell Abraq during the second and first millennia BC: Site layout, spatial organisation, and economy", Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 28.2, pp. 209-237209–237, 2017</ref>

Other emerging technical dating methods include [[rehydroxylation dating]], [[luminescence dating]], [[archaeomagnetic dating]] and the dating of lime plaster from structures.<ref name="WilsonCHH09">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Moira A. | last2 = Carter | first2 = Margaret A. | last3 = Hall | first3 = Christopher | last4 = Hoff | first4 = William D. | last5 = Ince | first5 = Ceren | last6 = Wilson | first6 = Moira A. | last7 = Savage | first7 = Shaun D. | last8 = McKay | first8 = Bernard | last9 = Betts | first9 = Ian M. | title = Dating fired-clay ceramics using long-term power law rehydroxylation kinetics | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society A | volume = 465 | issue = 2108 | pages = 2407–2415 | date = 8 August 2009 | doi = 10.1098/rspa.2009.0117 | bibcode = 2009RSPSA.465.2407W | s2cid = 59491943 | url = http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/465/2108/2407.full.pdf | access-date = 1 April 2020 }}</ref><ref>YvesGallet et al., "Possible impact of the Earth's magnetic field on the history of ancient civilizations", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 246, iss. 1–2, pp. 17-2617–26, 15 June 2006</ref><ref>Jason A. Rech, "New Uses for Old Laboratory techniques", Near Eastern Archaeology, 67, 4, pp. 212–219, Dec. 2004</ref><ref>Jesper Olsen, "Revisiting radiocarbon dating of lime mortar and lime plaster from Jerash in Jordan: Sample preparation by stepwise injection of diluted phosphoric acid", Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, vol. 41, February 2022</ref><ref>[https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2209117119] Vaknin, Yoav, et al. "Reconstructing biblical military campaigns using geomagnetic field data", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119.44, 2022</ref>

There are problems with using Egyptian chronology. Besides some minor issues of regnal lengths and overlaps, there are three long periods of poorly documented chaos in the history of ancient Egypt, the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First]], [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second]], and [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Periods]], whose lengths are doubtful.<ref>Thijs, Ad., "The Burial of Psusennes I and “The Bad Times” of P. Brooklyn 16.205", Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 141, no. 2, pp. 209-223209–223, 2014</ref> This means the Egyptian Chronology actually comprises three floating chronologies. The chronologies of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia depend significantly on the [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]]. To the extent that there are problems in the Egyptian chronology, these issues will be inherited in chronologies based on synchronisms with Ancient Egypt.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00310328.2020.1866329] Felix Höflmayer, "Tel Nami, Cyprus, and Egypt: Radiocarbon Dates and Early Middle Bronze Age Chronology", Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2021 {{doi|10.1080/00310328.2020.1866329}}</ref><ref>Belmonte, Juan Antonio, and José Lull, "Astronomy and Chronology", Astronomy of Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Perspective", Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 467-529467–529, 2023</ref><ref>Ward, William A., "The Present Status of Egyptian Chronology", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 288, pp. 53–66, 1992</ref>

There is much evidence that the Bronze Age civilization of the [[Indus Valley]] traded with the Near East, including clay seals found at Ur III and in the Persian Gulf.<ref>Gadd, C. J., "Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur". Proceedings of the British Academy 18, pp. 191–210, 1932</ref> Seals and beads were also found at the site of [[Esnunna]].<ref>Henri Frankfort, "The Indus civilization and the Near East", Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology for 1932, Leyden, VI, pp. 1-121–12, 1934</ref><ref>[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31995196/Connections_between_IVC_and_Mesopotamia-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1637025058&Signature=NY9HQYPFYXlp~s6yqFlHHrDB5jk2nQSP21oWWnoVeGxvpvuG5h~5-2ZZf13mpwLwBqxQVdMntfP8op6nhEeMS9ZXc~ISgjZgZzIzz36qVg9B1iSuTInPHfJDcQ4n1KMoGnX6n-WvIykCa8e7jLzBnmG7kQiKV8U40aBFHc9Hr0vMDZmJKTtEfdgqAptDGZtwm~p5H8znaAEi0RZtG4XjQ6ARx7uZKXSmB77AvQV-OWzI37ORQ0vd6UpBQxIllV~2QRGtVTpS9ADQR8GNv0dEvr7OGwPqHM7PRKvORGOHsnSjuXdHfjr9XdmVqs08cRoZw-rlSml5Y0ZVvrZILyY0hQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116001136/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31995196/Connections_between_IVC_and_Mesopotamia-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1637025058&Signature=NY9HQYPFYXlp~s6yqFlHHrDB5jk2nQSP21oWWnoVeGxvpvuG5h~5-2ZZf13mpwLwBqxQVdMntfP8op6nhEeMS9ZXc~ISgjZgZzIzz36qVg9B1iSuTInPHfJDcQ4n1KMoGnX6n-WvIykCa8e7jLzBnmG7kQiKV8U40aBFHc9Hr0vMDZmJKTtEfdgqAptDGZtwm~p5H8znaAEi0RZtG4XjQ6ARx7uZKXSmB77AvQV-OWzI37ORQ0vd6UpBQxIllV~2QRGtVTpS9ADQR8GNv0dEvr7OGwPqHM7PRKvORGOHsnSjuXdHfjr9XdmVqs08cRoZw-rlSml5Y0ZVvrZILyY0hQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |date=16 November 2021 }} J. MarkKenoyer et al., "A new approach to tracking connections between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia: initial results of strontium isotope analyses from Harappa and Ur", Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 40, iss. 5, pp. 2286-22972286–2297 May 2013</ref> In addition, if the land of [[Meluhha]] does indeed refer to the Indus Valley, then there are extensive trade records ranging from the Akkadian Empire until the Babylonian Dynasty I.

The [[Minoan eruption#Eruption dating|eruption of the Thera volcano]] provides a possible time marker for the region. A large eruption, it would have sent a plume of ash directly over Anatolia and filled the sea in the area with floating pumice. This pumice appeared in Egypt, apparently via trade. Current excavations in the Levant may also add to the timeline. The exact date of the volcanic eruption has been the subject of strong debate, with dates, ranging between 1628 and 1520 BC. These dates are based on radiocarbon samples, dendrochronology, ice cores, and archaeological remains. Archaeological remains date the eruption toward the end of the [[Minoan civilization#Late Minoan|Late Minoan IA]] period (c. 1636–1527 BC) roughly comparable to the beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt.<ref>Mühlenbruch, Tobias, "The absolute dating of the volcanic eruption of Santorini/Thera (periferia South Aegean/GR) – an alternative perspective", Praehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. 92, no. 1-21–2, pp. 92-10792–107, 2017</ref> Radiocarbon dating has placed it at between 1627 BC and 1600 BC with a 95% degree of probability.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Friedrich|first=Walter L|author2=Kromer, B|author3=Friedrich, M|author4=Heinemeier, J|author5=Pfeiffer, T|author6=Talamo, S|title=Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627–1600 B.C.|journal=Science|volume=312|issue=5773|pages=548|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|year=2006|doi=10.1126/science.1125087|access-date=10 March 2007|pmid=16645088|s2cid=35908442|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5773/548|archive-date=19 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619090500/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;312/5773/548|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Manning">Manning, Sturt W., et al., "Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700-14001700–1400 B.C.", Science, vol. 312, no. 5773, pp. 565–569, 2006</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=SW |last=Manning |contribution=Clarifying the "high" v. "low" Aegean/Cypriot chronology for the mid second millennium BC: assessing the evidence, interpretive frameworks, and current state of the debate |title=The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. III. Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna 28th of May – 1st of June 2003 |editor1-first=M |editor1-last=Bietak |place=Vienna, Austria |pages=101–137 |year=2003 |contribution-url=http://dendro.cornell.edu/articles/manning2007a.pdf |editor2-last=Czerny |editor2-first=E |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Archaeologist Kevin Walsh, accepting the radiocarbon dating, suggests a possible date of 1628 and believes this to be the most debated event in Mediterranean archaeology.<ref name=Walsh>{{cite book |last=Walsh |first=Kevin |title=The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes: Human-Environment Interaction from the Neolithic to the Roman Period |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521853019 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQJaAQAAQBAJ&q=eruption+Thera%7Csantorini&pg=PA20}}</ref> For the ANE chronology a key problem is the lack of a linkage between the eruption and some point on the floating chronology of the Middle Bronze Age in the ANE.

*[https://hal.science/hal-03090272v9] Gerard Gertoux, "Mesopotamian chronology over the period 2340-5392340–539 BCE through astronomically dated synchronisms and comparison with carbon-14 dating", ASOR 2019 Annual Meeting, Richard Coffman, Nov 2019, San Diego CA, United States, 2023