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{{Redirect-several|dab=no|Brainwashing (disambiguation)|Mind control (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
[[File:Mural sobre calle San Juan - Florencio Varela.JPG|thumb|Mural depicting the "brainwashing" effects of television in [[Florencio Varela, Buenos Aires|Florencio Varela]], [[Argentina]]]]
{{Behavioural influences}}
'''Brainwashing''', also known as '''mind control''', '''menticide''', '''coercive persuasion''', '''thought control''', '''thought reform''', and '''forced re-education''', is the concept that the human mind can be altered or controlled by psychological techniques. Brainwashing is said to reduce its subject's ability to think critically or independently, to allow the introduction of new, unwanted thoughts and ideas into their minds,<ref>{{cite book|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|author=Campbell, Robert Jean|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=USA|year=2004|page=403}}</ref> as well as to change their attitudes, values, and beliefs.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Dictionary of Psychology|author=Corsini, Raymond J.|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2002|page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kowal, D.M.|year=2000|contribution=Brainwashing|editor=Love, A.E.|title=Encyclopedia of Psychology|volume=1|pages=463–464|publisher=American Psychological Association|doi=10.1037/10516-173|isbn=1-55798-650-9 }}</ref>▼
▲'''Brainwashing''', also known as '''mind control''', '''menticide''', '''coercive persuasion''', '''thought control''', '''thought reform''', and '''forced re-education''', is the
The term "brainwashing" was first used in English by [[Edward Hunter (U.S. journalist)|Edward Hunter]] in 1950 to describe how the [[Chinese government]] to make people cooperate with them during the [[Korean War]]. Research into the concept also looked at [[Nazi Germany]] and present-day [[North Korea]], at some criminal cases in the United States, and at the actions of [[Human trafficking|human traffickers]]. ▼
▲The term "brainwashing" was first used in English by [[Edward Hunter (U.S. journalist)|Edward Hunter]] in 1950 to describe how the [[Chinese government]] appeared to make people cooperate with them during the [[Korean War]]. Research into the concept also looked at [[Nazi Germany]] and present-day [[North Korea]], at some criminal cases in the United States, and at the actions of [[Human trafficking|human traffickers]].
In the late 1960s and 1970s, the CIA's [[MKUltra]] experiments failed with no operational use of the subjects. [[Scientific]] and [[legal]] debate followed, as well as media attention, about the possibility of brainwashing being a factor when [[lysergic acid diethylamide]] (LSD) was used,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Religion|volume=2|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|year=2005}}</ref> or in the conversion of people which are considered to be [[cult]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Stuart|title=Media coverage of unconventional religion: Any "good news" for minority faiths?|journal=Review of Religious Research|date=December 1997|volume=39|issue=2|pages=101–115|doi=10.2307/3512176|jstor=3512176}}</ref>▼
▲In the late 1960s and 1970s, the CIA's [[MKUltra]] experiments failed with no operational use of the subjects. [[Scientific]] and [[legal]] debate followed, as well as media attention, about the possibility of brainwashing being a factor when [[lysergic acid diethylamide]] (LSD) was used,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Religion|volume=2|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|year=2005}}</ref> or in the conversion of people to groups which are considered to be [[cult]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Stuart|title=Media coverage of unconventional religion: Any "good news" for minority faiths?|journal=Review of Religious Research|date=December 1997|volume=39|issue=2|pages=101–115|doi=10.2307/3512176|jstor=3512176}}</ref>
Brainwashing has become a common theme in popular culture, especially in [[science fiction]].<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Brien, Terry|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|editor=Westfahl, Gary|volume=1}} {{ISBN?}}</ref> In casual speech, "brainwashing" and its verb form, "brainwash", are used [[Literal and figurative language|figuratively]] to describe the use of [[propaganda]] to [[persuade]] [[public opinion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/brainwash|title=Brainwash Definition & Meaning|date=22 July 2023|publisher=Merriam-Webster Dictionary|access-date=23 November 2022|archive-date=23 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123204547/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/brainwash|url-status=live}}</ref>▼
▲Brainwashing has become a common theme in popular culture, especially in [[science fiction]].<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Brien, Terry|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|editor=Westfahl, Gary|volume=1}} {{ISBN?}}</ref> In casual speech, "brainwashing" and its verb form, "brainwash", are used [[Literal and figurative language|figuratively]] to describe the use of [[propaganda]] to
==China and the Korean War==
{{See also|Thought reform in China}}
The Chinese term
The earliest known English-language usage of the word "brainwashing" in an article by a journalist [[Edward Hunter (U.S. journalist)|Edward Hunter]], in ''Miami News'', published in 1950.<ref name="Crean">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK |pages=82}}</ref> Hunter was an [[Anti-communism|anticommunist]] and was alleged to be a [[CIA]] agent working undercover.<ref name=MarksJohn1979>{{cite book|last=Marks|first=John|author-link=John D. Marks|title=The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and mind control|url=https://archive.org/details/searchformanchur00john|access-date=2008-12-30|year=1979|publisher=Times Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0812907735|chapter=Chapter 8. Brainwashing|chapter-url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/lsd/marks8.htm|quote=In September 1950, the ''[[The Miami News|Miami News]]'' published an article by Edward Hunter titled '"Brain-Washing" Tactics Force Chinese into Ranks of Communist Party'. It was the first printed use in any language of the term "brainwashing", Hunter, a CIA propaganda operator who worked undercover as a journalist, turned out a steady stream of books and articles on the subject. }}</ref> Hunter and others used the Chinese term to explain why, during the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953), some American [[prisoners of war]] (POWs) cooperated with their Chinese captors, and even in a few cases [[List of American and British defectors in the Korean War|defected to their side]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Browning|title=Was kidnapped Utah teen brainwashed?|work=[[Palm Beach Post]]|location=Palm Beach|issn=1528-5758|date=2003-03-14|quote=During the Korean War, captured American soldiers were subjected to prolonged interrogations and harangues by their captors, who often worked in relays and used the "good-cop, bad-cop" approach – alternating a brutal interrogator with a gentle one. It was all part of "Xi Nao" (''washing the brain''). The Chinese and Koreans were making valiant attempts to convert the captives to the communist way of thought.}}</ref> British radio operator [[Robert W. Ford]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Ford, R.C.|author-link=Robert W. Ford|title=Captured in Tibet|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=1990|isbn=978-0195815702}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=Robert W. Ford|author=Ford, R.C.|title=Wind between the Worlds: Captured in Tibet|publisher=SLG Books|year=1997|isbn=978-0961706692|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/windbetweenworld00ford }}</ref> and British army Colonel [[James Carne]] also claimed that the Chinese subjected them to brainwashing techniques during their imprisonment.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1953/02/23/83712037.pdf|title=Red germ charges cite 2 U.S. Marines|date=23 February 1954|access-date=16 February 2012}}</ref>
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The court ruled that the use of brainwashing theories is inadmissible in expert witnesses, citing the [[Frye standard]], which states that scientific theories utilized by expert witnesses must be generally accepted in their respective fields.<ref>{{cite news|title=United States v. Fishman (1990)|url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/743/713/2593631/|newspaper=Justia Law|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419065120/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/743/713/2593631/|url-status=live}}</ref> Since then, United States courts have consistently rejected testimony about mind control or brainwashing on the grounds that these theories are not part of accepted science under the Frye standard.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=Dick |last2=Robbins |first2=Thomas |date=1992 |title=Law, social science and the 'brainwashing' exception to the first amendment |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bsl.2370100103 |journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=5–29 |doi=10.1002/bsl.2370100103 |access-date=2023-03-13 |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313224058/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bsl.2370100103 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2003, the brainwashing defense was used unsuccessfully in defense of [[Lee Boyd Malvo]], who was charged with murder for his part in the [[D.C. sniper attacks]].<ref>''Mental Condition Defences and the Criminal Justice System: Perspectives from Law and Medicine'', Ben Livings, Alan Reed, Nicola Wake, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015, p. 98 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref name="Oldenburg">Oldenburg, Don (2003-11-21). [http://www.crimlaw.org/defbrief269.html "Stressed to Kill: The Defense of Brainwashing; Sniper Suspect's Claim Triggers More Debate"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501144721/http://www.crimlaw.org/defbrief269.html|date=1 May 2011}}, ''[[The Washington Post]]'', reproduced in ''Defence Brief'', issue 269, published by Steven Skurka & Associates</ref> Allegations of brainwashing have also been raised by plaintiffs in child custody cases.<ref>[[Richard Warshak|Warshak, R. A.]] (2010). ''Divorce Poison: How to Protect Your Family from Bad-mouthing and Brainwashing''. New York: Harper Collins.</ref><ref>Richardson, James T. ''Regulating Religion: Case Studies from Around the Globe'', Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2004, p. 16, {{ISBN|978-0306478871}}.</ref>
[[Thomas Andrew Green]], in his 2014 book ''Freedom and Criminal Responsibility in American Legal Thought'', argues that the brainwashing defense undermines the law's fundamental premise of [[free will]].<ref>''Freedom and Criminal Responsibility in American Legal Thought'', Thomas Andrew Green, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 391 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>''LaFave's Criminal Law,'' 5th (Hornbook Series), Wayne LaFave, West Academic, 18 March 2010, pp. 208–210 {{ISBN?}}</ref> In 2003, forensic psychologist [[Dick Anthony]] said that "no reasonable person would question that there are situations where people can be influenced against their best interests, but those arguments are evaluated based on fact, not bogus expert testimony."<ref name="Oldenburg" />
==Anti-cult movement==
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[[File:Philip_Zimbardo_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Phillip Zimbardo]]]]
In the 1970s and 1980s, the anti-cult movement applied the concept of brainwashing to explain seemingly sudden and dramatic [[religious conversion]]s to some [[new religious movement]]s (NRMs) and other groups that they considered [[cults]].<ref name="BromleyEncy">{{cite book|chapter=Brainwashing|last=Bromley|first= David G.|year=1998|pages=61–62|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society|editor=William H. Swatos Jr.|publisher=AltaMira|location=Walnut Creek, CA|isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1}}</ref><ref>Barker, Eileen: ''New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction''. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1989.</ref> News media reports tended to accept their view<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|author=Wright, Stewart A.|year=1997|title=Media Coverage of Unconventional Religion: Any 'Good News' for Minority Faiths?|journal=Review of Religious Research|volume=39|issue=2|pages=101–115|doi=10.2307/3512176|jstor=3512176}}</ref> and [[social scientists]] sympathetic to the anti-cult movement, who were usually [[psychologists]], developed revised models of mind control.<ref name="BromleyEncy" /> While some psychologists were receptive to the concept, sociologists were, for the most part, skeptical of its ability to explain conversion.<ref name="BarkerAReview">{{cite journal|author=Barker, Eileen|year=1986|title=Religious Movements: Cult and Anti-Cult Since Jonestown|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=12|pages=329–346|doi=10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.001553}}</ref> Critics of [[Mormonism]] have accused it of brainwashing its adherents.<ref name="Helfrich 2021 p. 15">{{cite book | last=Helfrich | first=R. | title=Mormon Studies: A Critical History | publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-4766-4511-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFlXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 | access-date=2023-06-15 | page=15 | archive-date=14 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014211739/https://books.google.com/books?id=tFlXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 | url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Philip Zimbardo]] defined mind control as "the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition or behavioral outcomes,"<ref name="Zimbardo 2002">{{cite journal|last=Zimbardo|first=Philip G.|author-link=Philip Zimbardo|date=November 2002|title=Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric?|journal=Monitor on Psychology|url=http://www.icsahome.com/articles/mind-control-zimbardo|access-date=2016-06-02|quote=Mind control is the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition or behavioral outcomes. It is neither magical nor mystical, but a process that involves a set of basic social psychological principles. Conformity, compliance, persuasion, dissonance, reactance, guilt and fear arousal, modeling, and identification are some of the staple social influence ingredients well-studied in psychological experiments and field studies. In some combinations, they create a powerful crucible of extreme mental and behavioral [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]] when synthesized with several other real-world factors, such as charismatic, authoritarian leaders, dominant ideologies, social isolation, physical debilitation, induced phobias, and extreme threats or promised rewards that are typically deceptively orchestrated, over an extended time period in settings where they are applied intensively. A body of social science evidence shows that when systematically practiced by state-sanctioned police, military or destructive cults, mind control can induce false confessions, create converts who willingly torture or kill 'invented enemies,' and engage indoctrinated members to work tirelessly, give up their money—and even their lives—for 'the cause.'|archive-date=4 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704120313/http://www.icsahome.com/articles/mind-control-zimbardo|url-status=dead}}</ref> and he suggested that any human being is susceptible to such manipulation.<ref name="Zimbardo 1997 14">{{cite journal|last=Zimbardo|first=P|author-link=Philip Zimbardo|url=http://www.csj.org/studyindex/studycult/study_zimbar.htm|page=14|title=What messages are behind today's cults?|journal=Monitor on Psychology|year=1997|access-date=1 October 2009|archive-date=2 May 1998|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980502070642/http://csj.org/studyindex/studycult/study_zimbar.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>▼
▲[[Philip Zimbardo]] defined mind control as "the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition or behavioral outcomes,"<ref name="Zimbardo 2002">{{cite journal|last=Zimbardo|first=Philip G.|author-link=Philip Zimbardo|date=November 2002|title=Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric?|journal=Monitor on Psychology|url=http://www.icsahome.com/articles/mind-control-zimbardo|access-date=2016-06-02|quote=Mind control is the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition or behavioral outcomes. It is neither magical nor mystical, but a process that involves a set of basic social psychological principles. Conformity, compliance, persuasion, dissonance, reactance, guilt and fear arousal, modeling, and identification are some of the staple social influence ingredients well-studied in psychological experiments and field studies. In some combinations, they create a powerful crucible of extreme mental and behavioral [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]] when synthesized with several other real-world factors, such as charismatic, authoritarian leaders, dominant ideologies, social isolation, physical debilitation, induced phobias, and extreme threats or promised rewards that are typically deceptively orchestrated, over an extended time period in settings where they are applied intensively. A body of social science evidence shows that when systematically practiced by state-sanctioned police, military or destructive cults, mind control can induce false confessions, create converts who willingly torture or kill 'invented enemies,' and engage indoctrinated members to work tirelessly, give up their money—and even their lives—for 'the cause.'|archive-date=4 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704120313/http://www.icsahome.com/articles/mind-control-zimbardo|url-status=dead}}</ref> and he suggested that any human being is susceptible to such manipulation.<ref name="Zimbardo 1997 14">{{cite journal|last=Zimbardo|first=P|author-link=Philip Zimbardo|url=http://www.csj.org/studyindex/studycult/study_zimbar.htm|page=14|title=What messages are behind today's cults?|journal=Monitor on Psychology|year=1997|access-date=1 October 2009|archive-date=2 May 1998|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980502070642/http://csj.org/studyindex/studycult/study_zimbar.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Benjamin Zablocki]], late professor of sociology at [[Rutgers]] university said that the number of people who attest to brainwashing in interviews (performed in accordance with guidelines of the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] and [[National Science Foundation]]) is too large to result from anything other than a genuine phenomenon.<ref name="zablocki-p194-201">{{cite book|last=Zablocki|first=Benjamin|title=Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field|year=2001|publisher=U of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8188-9|pages=194–201}}</ref> He said that in the two most prestigious journals dedicated to the [[sociology of religion]] there have been no articles "supporting the brainwashing perspective," while over one hundred such articles have been published in other journals "marginal to the field."<ref name="Zablocki1998">{{cite journal|title=TReply to Bromley|journal=Nova Religio|date=April 1998|first=Benjamin.|last=Zablocki|volume=1|issue=2|pages=267–271|doi=10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.267}}</ref> He concluded that the concept of brainwashing had been [[blacklisted]].<ref name="Zablocki1997">{{cite journal|journal=Nova Religio|date=October 1997|first=Benjamin.|last=Zablocki|volume=1|issue=1|pages=96–121|doi=10.1525/nr.1997.1.1.96|title=The Blacklisting of a Concept: The Strange History of the Brainwashing Conjecture in the Sociology of Religion }}</ref><ref name="Zablocki1998" /><ref>Phil Zuckerman. ''Invitation to the Sociology of Religion''. Psychology Press, 24 July 2003 p. 28 {{ISBN?}}</ref>
[[Eileen Barker]] criticized the concept of mind control because it functioned to justify costly interventions such as [[deprogramming]] or exit counseling.<ref name="Rusher">[https://web.archive.org/web/20050415093632/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_v38/ai_4580948 Review], [[William Rusher]], ''[[National Review]]'', 19 December 1986.</ref> She has also criticized some mental health professionals, including Singer, for accepting expert witness jobs in court cases involving NRMs.<ref name="BarkerJoke">{{cite journal|author=Barker, Eileen|year=1995|title=The Scientific Study of Religion? You Must Be Joking!|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|volume=34|issue=3|pages=287–310|doi=10.2307/1386880|jstor=1386880}}</ref> Barker's 1984 book, ''[[The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?]]'',<ref>[[Eileen Barker]], ''The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?'', [[Blackwell's|Blackwell Publishers]], Oxford, United Kingdom, {{ISBN|0-631-13246-5}}.</ref> describes the religious conversion process to the [[Unification Church]] (whose members are sometimes informally referred to as ''[[Moonie (nickname)|Moonies]]''), which had been one of the best-known groups said to practice brainwashing.<ref name="Barker2012">[http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/03/my-take-moons-death-marks-end-of-an-era/ Moon's death marks end of an era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829065856/http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/03/my-take-moons-death-marks-end-of-an-era/ |date=29 August 2019 }}, [[Eileen Barker]], [[CNN]], 3 September 2012, Although Moon is likely to be remembered for all these things—mass weddings, accusations of brainwashing, political intrigue and enormous wealth—he should also be remembered as creating what was arguably one of the most comprehensive and innovative theologies embraced by a new religion of the period.</ref><ref name="usatoday2012-09-02a">{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2012-09-02/unification-church-rev-moon-dies/57537454/1|title=Unification Church founder Rev. Sun Myung Moon dies at 92|author=Hyung-Jin Kim|work=USA Today|issn=0734-7456|date=2 September 2012|access-date=2 September 2012|quote=The Rev. Sun Myung Moon was a self-proclaimed messiah who built a global business empire. He called both North Korean leaders and American presidents his friends but spent time in prisons in both countries. His followers around the world cherished him, while his detractors accused him of brainwashing recruits and extracting money from worshippers.|archive-date=29 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929230011/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2012-09-02/unification-church-rev-moon-dies/57537454/1|url-status=dead}}</ref> Barker spent close to seven years studying Unification Church members and wrote that she rejects the "brainwashing" theory because it does not explain why many people attended a recruitment meeting and did not become members nor why so many members voluntarily disaffiliate or leave groups.<ref name="Rusher" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060618211708/http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus/chryssides.html New Religious Movements – Some Problems of Definition] [[George Chryssides]], ''Diskus'', 1997.</ref><ref>[http://faculty.arec.umd.edu/cmcausland/RALi/The%20Market%20for%20Martyrs.pdf The Market for Martyrs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111212356/http://faculty.arec.umd.edu/cmcausland/RALi/The%20Market%20for%20Martyrs.pdf|date=11 January 2012 }}, [[Laurence Iannaccone]], [[George Mason University]], 2006, "One of the most comprehensive and influential studies was ''The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?'' by Eileen Barker (1984). Barker could find no evidence that Moonie recruits were ever kidnapped, confined, or coerced. Participants at Moonie retreats were not [[deprived of sleep]]; the lectures were not "trance-inducing" and there was not much chanting, no drugs or alcohol, and little that could be termed a "frenzy" or "ecstatic" experience. People were free to leave, and leave they did. Barker's extensive enumerations showed that among the recruits who went so far as to attend two-day retreats (claimed to beMoonie's most effective means of "brainwashing"), fewer than 25% joined the group for more than a week, and only 5% remained full-time members one year later. And, of course, most contacts dropped out before attending a retreat. Of all those who visited a Moonie center at least once, not one in two hundred remained in the movement two years later. With failure rates exceeding 99.5%, it comes as no surprise that full-time Moonie membership in the U.S. never exceeded a few thousand. And this was one of the most successful New Religious Movements of the era!"</ref><ref>Oakes, Len "By far the best study of the conversion process is Eileen Barker's ''The Making of a Moonie [...]''" from ''Prophetic Charisma: The Psychology of Revolutionary Religious Personalities'', 1997, {{ISBN|0-8156-0398-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Storr |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Storr |title=Feet of clay: a study of gurus |year=1996 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=0-684-83495-2}}</ref>
[[James Richardson (sociologist)|James Richardson]] said that if the new religious movements had access to powerful brainwashing techniques, one would expect that they would have high growth rates, yet in fact, most have not had notable success in recruiting or retaining members.<ref name="Richardson1985">{{cite journal|title=The active vs. passive convert: paradigm conflict in conversion/recruitment research|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|date=June 1985|first=James T.|last=Richardson|volume=24|issue=2|pages=163–179|doi=10.2307/1386340|jstor=1386340}}</ref> For this and other reasons, sociologists of religion including [[David G. Bromley|David Bromley]] and [[Anson Shupe]] consider the idea that "cults" are brainwashing American youth to be "implausible."<ref name="brain_wash">{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/brain_wa.htm|title=Brainwashing by Religious Cults|work=religioustolerance.org|access-date=23 November 2004|archive-date=19 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419010810/http://www.religioustolerance.org/brain_wa.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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Recent scientific book publications in the field of the [[mental disorder]] "[[dissociative identity disorder]]" (DID) mention [[torture]]-based brainwashing by criminal networks and malevolent actors as a deliberate means to create multiple "programmable" personalities in a person to exploit this individual for sexual and financial reasons.<ref>{{Citation|last=Schwartz|first=Rachel Wingfield|title='An evil cradling?' Cult practices and the manipulation of attachment needs in ritual abuse|date=2018-03-22|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429479700-2|work=Ritual Abuse and Mind Control|pages=39–55|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429479700-2|isbn=978-0-429-47970-0|access-date=2021-07-11}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Miller|first=Alison|chapter=Becoming Yourself |title=
Becoming Yourself: Overcoming Mind Control and Ritual Abuse|date=2018-05-11|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429472251-21|pages=347–370|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780429472251-21|isbn=978-0-429-47225-1|access-date=2023-05-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Alison|date=2018-05-08|title=Healing the Unimaginable|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429475467|doi=10.4324/9780429475467|isbn=978-0429475467}}</ref><ref>Alayarian, A. (2018). ''Trauma, Torture and Dissociation: A Psychoanalytic View''. (n.p.): Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>Schwartz, H. L. (2013). ''The Alchemy of Wolves and Sheep: A Relational Approach to Internalized Perpetration in Complex Trauma Survivors''. US: ''Taylor & Francis.'' {{ISBN?}}</ref> Earlier scientific debates in the 1980s and 1990s about torture-based ritual abuse in cults was known as "[[satanic ritual abuse]]," which was mainly viewed as a "[[moral panic]]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goode|first1=Erich|last2=Ben-Yehuda|first2=Nachman|date=1994|title=Moral Panics: Culture, Politics, and Social Construction|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083363|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=20|pages=149–171|doi=10.1146/annurev.so.20.080194.001053|jstor=2083363|issn=0360-0572|access-date=20 July 2021|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718083520/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083363|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Brain-Washing (book)|''Brain-Washing: A Synthesis of the Russian Textbook on Psychopolitics'']] published by the [[Church of Scientology]] in 1955 about brainwashing. [[L. Ron Hubbard]] authored the text and alleged it was the secret manual written by [[Lavrentiy Beria]], the [[NKVD|Soviet secret police]] chief, in 1936.<ref>{{Cite book |title=They Never Said It : A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, and Misleading Attributions |author=Paul F. Boller |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=1989 |page=5 |isbn=978-0-19-505541-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/theyneversaiditb00boll |url-access=registration |quote=brain washing hubbard 1936.}}</ref> When the FBI ignored him, Hubbard wrote again stating that Soviet agents had, on three occasions, attempted to hire him to work against the United States, and were upset about his refusal,<ref name="atack">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/pieceofblueskysc00atac/ |title=A Piece of Blue Sky: Scientology, Dianetics and L. Ron Hubbard Exposed |first=Jon |last=Atack |author-link=Jon Atack |date=1990 |publisher=[[Lyle Stuart|Lyle Stuart Books]] |isbn=081840499X |ol=9429654M |page=140}}</ref> and that one agent specifically attacked him using electroshock as a weapon.<ref>{{cite book
| title=California. Court of Appeal (2nd Appellate District). Records and Briefs
| author=California (State)
| page=33
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNbukS--lrEC&q=%22brainwashing%22+hubbard+fbi+communists&pg=PA33
}}</ref>
[[Kathleen Barry]], co-founder of the [[United Nations]] NGO, the [[Coalition Against Trafficking in Women]] (CATW),<ref name="A Distinctive Style Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.adistinctivestyle.com/i/73080/96|title=A Distinctive Style Article|access-date=21 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021043933/http://www.adistinctivestyle.com/i/73080/96|archive-date=21 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="On the Issues Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.ontheissuesmagazine.com/1995summer/pimping.php|title=On the Issues Article|publisher=Ontheissuesmagazine.com|access-date=2019-08-05|archive-date=28 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828170242/https://www.ontheissuesmagazine.com/1995summer/pimping.php|url-status=live}}</ref> prompted international awareness of human sex trafficking in her 1979 book ''Female Sexual Slavery''.<ref name="Biography at The People Speak Radio">[http://www.thepeoplespeakradio.net/2011/kathleen-barry/ Biography at The People Speak Radio] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615092814/http://www.thepeoplespeakradio.net/2011/kathleen-barry/|date=15 June 2012 }}</ref> In his 1986 book ''Woman Abuse: Facts Replacing Myths,'' Lewis Okun reported that: "Kathleen Barry shows in ''Female Sexual Slavery'' that forced female prostitution involves coercive control practices very similar to thought reform."<ref>
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In his 2000 book, ''Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism'', Robert Lifton applied his original ideas about thought reform to [[Aum Shinrikyo]] and the [[War on Terrorism]], concluding that, in this context, thought reform was possible without violence or physical coercion. He also pointed out that in their efforts against terrorism, Western governments were also using some alleged mind control techniques.<ref>''Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism'', Owl Books, 2000. {{ISBN?}}</ref>
In her 2004 [[popular science]] book, ''[[Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control]]'', [[neuroscientist]] and [[physiologist]] [[Kathleen Taylor (biologist)|Kathleen Taylor]] reviewed the history of mind control theories, as well as notable incidents. In it, she theorized that persons under the influence of brainwashing may have more rigid [[neurological]] pathways, and that can make it more difficult to rethink situations or to be able to later reorganize these pathways.<ref name="szimhart">{{cite journal| last =Szimhart| first =Joseph| title =Thoughts on thought control| journal =[[Skeptical Inquirer]]| volume =29| issue =4| pages =56–57| date =July–August 2005
In 2006 ''[[Brainwash: The Secret History of Mind Control]]'' ({{ISBN|0-340-83161-8}}) is a non-fiction book published by [[Hodder & Stoughton]] about the evolution of brainwashing from its origins in the Cold War through to today's War on Terror.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article689424.ece|title = TLS - Times Literary Supplement}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2006/sep/23/featuresreviews.guardianreview9|title = Et cetera: Sep 23|website = [[TheGuardian.com]]|date = 23 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Delaney |first=Tim |date=2007 |title=Brainwash: The Secret History of Mind Control |journal=[[Library Journal]] |language=en-US |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=95 |issn=0363-0277}}</ref> The author, [[Dominic Streatfeild]],
uses formerly classified documentation and interviews from the CIA.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070815035224/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no1/the-intelligence-officers-bookshelf.html The Intelligence Officer's Bookshelf]</ref>
==In popular culture==
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==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=24em|
* [[Behavior modification]]
* [[Indoctrination]]
* [[Orwellian]]
* [[Manipulation (psychology)]]
* [[Abusive power and control]]
* [[Psychological warfare]]
* [[Hypnosis]]
* [[Political abuse of psychiatry]]
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