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{{original research|date=June 2009}}
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[[File:UKISS Soohyun 2023.png|thumb|[[Kim Soo-hyun]] [[waving|waving his hand]] in greeting]]
[[File:Us navy helicopter landing signals illustration.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Military [[aircraft marshalling|air marshallers]] use hand and body gestures to direct flight operations aboard [[aircraft carrier]]s.]]▼
A '''gesture''' is a form of [[non-verbal communication]] or non-vocal [[communication]] in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of, or in conjunction with, [[speech]]. Gestures include movement of the [[hand]]s, [[face]], or other parts of the [[Human body|body]]. Gestures differ from physical non-verbal communication that does not communicate specific messages, such as purely [[Emotional expression|expressive]] displays, [[proxemics]], or displays of [[joint attention]].<ref name=Kendon>Kendon, Adam. (2004) ''Gesture: Visible Action as Utterance''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0521835259}}</ref> Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with [[body language]] in addition to [[word]]s when they speak. Gesticulation and speech work independently of each other, but join to provide emphasis and meaning.
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A study done in 1644, by [[John Bulwer]] an [[English people|English]] [[physician]] and early [[Baconian method|Baconian]] [[Natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] wrote five works exploring human communications pertaining to gestures.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wollock | first1 = J | year = 2002 | title = John Bulwer (1606–1656) and the significance of gesture in 17th-century theories of language and cognition | journal = Gesture | volume = 2 | issue = 2| page = 227 | doi = 10.1075/gest.2.2.06wol }}</ref> Bulwer analyzed dozens of gestures and provided a guide under his book named Chirologia which focused on hand gestures.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chirologia: or the Naturall Language of the Hand|url=https://archive.org/details/b30324907|last=Bulwer|first=J|year=1644|location=London|author-link=John Bulwer}}</ref> In the 19th century, [[Andrea De Jorio]] an Italian [[antiquarian]] who considered a lot of research about [[body language]] published an extensive account of gesture expressions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lw8tzmu9-GYC|title=Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity|last=de Jorio|first=A|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0253215062|author-link=Andrea de Jorio|orig-year=1832|access-date=2015-11-17|archive-date=2012-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920170752/http://books.google.com/books?id=lw8tzmu9-GYC|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Andrew N. Meltzoff]] an American psychologist internationally renown for infant and child development conducted a study in 1977 on the imitation of facial and manual gestures by newborns. The study concluded that "infants between 12 and 21 days of age can imitate the facial and manual gestures of parents".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meltzoff|first1=A. N.|last2=Moore|first2=M. K.|date=1977-10-07|title=Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates|journal=Science|volume=198|issue=4312|pages=74–78|issn=0036-8075|pmid=897687|doi=10.1126/science.897687|bibcode=1977Sci...198...75M|doi-access=}}</ref> In 1992, [[David McNeill|David Mcneill]], a professor of [[linguistics]] and [[psychology]] at the [[University of Chicago]], wrote a book based on his ten years of research and concluded that "gestures do not simply form a part of what is said, but have an impact on thought itself." Meltzoff argues that gestures directly transfer thoughts into visible forms, showing that ideas and language cannot always be express.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3641188.html|title=Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought.|last=McNeill|first=D|date=1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=2018-12-05|archive-date=2018-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205193712/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3641188.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A peer-reviewed journal Gesture has been published since 2001,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/gest/issues|title=Gesture Issues|date=2016|website=benjamins.com|publisher=Benjamins|access-date=2016-10-11|archive-date=2015-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/gest/issues|url-status=live}}</ref> and was founded by [[Adam Kendon]] and [[Cornelia Müller]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gesturestudies.com/history.php|title=A brief history of the origins of the ISGS|last=Müller|first=Cornelia|website=ISGS: International Society for Gesture Studies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011231434/http://www.gesturestudies.com/history.php|archive-date=2016-10-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> The International Society for Gesture Studies (ISGS) was founded in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gesturestudies.com/|title=International Society for Gesture Studies (ISGS)|last=Andrén|first=Mats|website=gesturestudies.com|access-date=2016-10-11|archive-date=2016-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011231131/http://gesturestudies.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Gesture has frequently been taken up by researchers in the field of dance studies and performance studies in ways that emphasize the ways they are culturally and contextually inflected. Performance scholar Carrie Noland describes gestures as "learned techniques of the body" and stresses the way gestures are embodied corporeal forms of cultural communication.<ref>Noland, Carrie. ''Agency and Embodiment : Performing Gestures/producing Culture''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009. p. 2.
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==Typology (categories)==
[[File:J. M. Flagg, I Want You for U.S. Army poster (1917).jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Pointing]] at another person with an extended finger is considered rude in many cultures.]]▼
Humans have the ability to communicate through language, but they can also express through gestures. In particular, gestures can be transmitted through movements of body parts, face, and body expressions.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Abner |display-authors=etal |first=Natasha|year=2015|title=Gesture for Linguists: A Handy Primer|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=9|issue=11|pages=437–449|doi=10.1111/lnc3.12168|pmid=26807141 |pmc=4721265}}</ref> Researchers Goldin Meadow and Brentari D. conducted research in 2015 and concluded that communicating through sign language is no different from spoken language.<ref name=":5">''Gesture, sign and language: The coming of age of sign language and gesture studies''. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282760416_Gesture_sign_and_language_The_coming_of_age_of_sign_language_and_gesture_studies [accessed Nov 04 2018].</ref>
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The first way to distinguish between categories of gesture is to differentiate between communicative gesture and informative gesture. While most gestures can be defined as possibly happening during the course of spoken utterances, the informative-communicative dichotomy focuses on intentionality of meaning and communication in co-speech gesture.<ref name=":12" />
==== Informative (
Informative gestures are passive gestures that provide information about the speaker as a person and not about what the speaker is trying to communicate. Some movements are not purely considered gestures, however a person could perform these adapters in such way like scratching, adjusting clothing, and tapping.'''<ref>{{Cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60241-5|chapter=Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What do Conversational Hand Gestures Tell Us?|title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 28|volume=28|pages=389–450
These gestures can occur during speech, but they may also occur independently of communication, as they are not a part of active communication. While informative gestures may communicate information about the person speaking (e.g. itchy, uncomfortable, etc.), this communication is not engaged with any language being produced by the person gesturing.<ref name=":12" />
==== Communicative (
Communicative gestures are gestures that are produced intentionally and meaningfully by a person as a way of intensifying or modifying speech produced in the vocal tract (or with the hands in the case of sign languages), even though a speaker may not be actively aware that they are producing communicative gestures.<ref name=":12" /> For instance, on the picture above of Uncle Sam, he is pointing and sending a non-verbal form of gesture by implying he wants you to join the U.S. Army. This is a form of symbolic gesture, usually used in the absence of speech.<ref name=":5" />▼
▲[[File:J. M. Flagg, I Want You for U.S. Army poster (1917).jpg|
▲Communicative gestures are gestures that are produced intentionally and meaningfully by a person as a way of intensifying or modifying speech produced in the vocal tract (or with the hands in the case of sign languages), even though a speaker may not be actively aware that they are producing communicative gestures.<ref name=":12
For instance, on the U.S. Army recruitment poster of Uncle Sam, he is pointing and sending a non-verbal form of gesture by implying he wants the viewer to join the U.S. Army. This is a form of symbolic gesture, usually used in the absence of speech.<ref name=":5" />
== Body language relating to gestures ==
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=== Manual gestures ===
A gesture that is a form of communication in which bodily actions communicate particular messages. Manual gestures are most commonly broken down into four distinct categories: Symbolic (Emblematic), [[Deixis|Deictic]] (Indexical), Motor (Beat), and Lexical (Iconic)<ref name=":0" />
Manual gesture in the sense of communicative co-speech gesture does not include the gesture-signs of [[Sign language| ==== Symbolic (emblematic) ====
▲[[File:Us navy helicopter landing signals illustration.jpg|thumb|right
{{Main|List of gestures}}The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the US for "hello" and "goodbye". A single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.<ref>[[Morris, Desmond]], Collett, Peter, Marsh, Peter, O'Shaughnessy, Marie. 1979. ''Gestures, their origins and distribution''. London. Cape</ref> The page [[List of gestures]] discusses emblematic gestures made with one hand, two hands, hand and other body parts, and body and facial gestures.
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Studies affirm a strong link between gesture typology and [[language development]]. Young children under the age of two seem to rely on pointing gestures to refer to objects that they do not know the names of. Once the words are learned, they eschewed those referential (pointing) gestures. One would think that the use of gesture would decrease as the child develops spoken language, but results reveal that gesture frequency increased as speaking frequency increased with age. There is, however, a change in gesture typology at different ages, suggesting a connection between gestures and language development. Children most often use pointing and adults rely more on iconic and beat gestures. As children begin producing sentence-like utterances, they also begin producing new kinds of gestures that adults use when speaking (iconics and beats). Evidence of this systematic organization of gesture is indicative of its association to language development.<ref name="mayberry"/>
=== Sign languages ===
Gestural languages such as [[American Sign Language]] and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with [[finger spelling]], in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a written alphabet. American sign language is different from gesturing in that concepts are modeled by certain hand motions or expressions and has a specific established structure while gesturing is more malleable and has no specific structure rather it supplements speech. Before an established sign language was created in Nicaragua after the 1970s, deaf communities would use "home signs" in order to communicate with each other. These home signs were not part of a unified language but were still used as familiar motions and expressions used within their family—still closely related to language rather than gestures with no specific structure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fernandez|first=Eva M.|title=Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalspsyc00fern|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1405191470|page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalspsyc00fern/page/n92 77]|author2=Helen Smith Cairns}}</ref> This is similar to what has been observed in the gestural actions of chimpanzees. Gestures are used by these animals in place of verbal language, which is restricted in animals due to their lacking certain physiological and articulation abilities that humans have for speech. Corballis (2009) asserts that "our hominid ancestors were better pre-adapted to acquire language-like competence using manual gestures than using vocal sounds."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Corballis | first1 = M. C. | year = 2010 | title = The gestural origins of language | journal = WIREs Cogn Sci | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–7 | doi = 10.1002/wcs.2 | pmid = 26272832 | s2cid = 22492422 }}</ref> This leads to a debate about whether humans, too, looked to gestures first as their modality of language in the early existence of the species. The function of gestures may have been a significant player in the evolution of language.▼
[[File:Plate I (The Sign Language 2nd ed. 1918).png|thumb|A 1918 picture dictionary of [[American Sign Language]]]]
Gestural languages such as [[American Sign Language]] operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with [[finger spelling]], in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a written alphabet. Sign languages are different from gesturing in that concepts are modeled by certain hand motions or expressions and has a specific established structure while gesturing is more malleable and has no specific structure rather it supplements speech.
Before an [[Nicaraguan Sign Language|established sign language]] was created in Nicaragua after the 1970s, deaf Nicaraguans would use "[[Home sign|home signs]]" in order to communicate with others. These home signs were not part of a unified language but were still used as familiar motions and expressions used within their family—still closely related to language rather than gestures with no specific structure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fernandez|first=Eva M.|title=Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalspsyc00fern|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1405191470|page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalspsyc00fern/page/n92 77]|author2=Helen Smith Cairns}}</ref>
▲
==Social significance==
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* In [[Germany]], "it is impolite to shake someone's hand with your other hand in your pocket. This is seen as a sign of disrespect".
* In [[France]], "a light, quick handshake is common. To offer a strong, pumping handshake would be considered uncultured. When one enters a room, be sure to greet each person present. A woman in France will offer her hand first."<ref>Axtell, R. (1993). Worldsmart: Gestures around the world. World Smart Resource Center, Retrieved from http://www.globalbusinessleadership.com/gestures_overview.asp {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311180211/http://www.globalbusinessleadership.com/gestures_overview.asp |date=2017-03-11 }}</ref>
[[File:VitarkaMudra.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Vitarka-vicara|Vitarka Vicara]], [[Tarim Basin]], 9th century.]]In [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], a ''[[mudra]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], literally "seal") is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. Each mudra has a specific meaning, playing a central role in Hindu and Buddhist [[iconography]].▼
A common religious gesture include crossing oneself in a number of religions as a sign of respect, typically by kneeling before a sacred object in many.<ref name="VASC, Dermina 2013">VASC, Dermina, and Thea IONESCU. "Embodying Cognition: Gestures And Their Role In The Development Of Thinking." Cognitie, Creier, Comportament/Cognition, Brain, Behavior 17.2 (2013): 149–150. Academic Search Complete. Web.</ref> Gestures play a central role in religious or spiritual rituals such as the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[sign of the cross]].▼
Gestures are also a means to initiate a [[Courtship|mating ritual]]. This may include elaborate [[dance]]s and other movements. Gestures play a major role in many aspects of human life.
Additionally, when people use gestures, there is a certain shared background knowledge. Different cultures use similar gestures when talking about a specific action such as how we gesture the idea of drinking out of a cup.<ref name="VASC, Dermina 2013">VASC, Dermina, and Thea IONESCU. "Embodying Cognition: Gestures And Their Role In The Development Of Thinking." Cognitie, Creier, Comportament/Cognition, Brain, Behavior 17.2 (2013): 149–150. Academic Search Complete. Web.</ref>
When an individual makes a gesture, another person can understand because of recognition of the actions/shapes.<ref name="VASC, Dermina 2013" />
Gestures have been documented in the arts such as in Greek vase paintings, [[Indian painting|Indian Miniatures]] or European paintings.
=== In religion ===
▲[[File:VitarkaMudra.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Vitarka-vicara|Vitarka Vicara]], [[Tarim Basin]], 9th century.]]In [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], a ''[[mudra]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], literally "seal") is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. Each mudra has a specific meaning, playing a central role in Hindu and Buddhist [[iconography]].
▲A common religious gesture include crossing oneself in a number of religions as a sign of respect, typically by kneeling before a sacred object in many.<ref name="VASC, Dermina 2013"
An example, [[Vitarka-vicara|Vitarka Vicara]], the gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. It is done by joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, while keeping the other fingers straight.
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The linkage of hand and body gestures in conjunction with speech is further revealed by the nature of gesture use in blind individuals during conversation. This phenomenon uncovers a function of gesture that goes beyond portraying communicative content of language and extends [[David McNeill]]'s view of the gesture-speech system. This suggests that gesture and speech work tightly together, and a disruption of one (speech or gesture) will cause a problem in the other. Studies have found strong evidence that speech and gesture are innately linked in the brain and work in an efficiently wired and choreographed system. McNeill's view of this linkage in the brain is just one of three currently up for debate; the others declaring gesture to be a "support system" of spoken language or a physical mechanism for lexical retrieval.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Iverson |first=Jana M. |author2=Esther Thelen |title=Hand, Mouth and Brain |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |year=2005 |url=http://cspeech.ucd.ie/~fred/docs/IversonThelen.pdf |access-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215359/http://cspeech.ucd.ie/~fred/docs/IversonThelen.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref>
Because of this connection of co-speech gestures—a form of manual action—in language in the brain, Roel Willems and [[Peter Hagoort]] conclude that both gestures and language contribute to the understanding and decoding of a speaker's encoded message. Willems and Hagoort's research suggest that "processing evoked by gestures is qualitatively similar to that of words at the level of semantic processing." This conclusion is supported through findings from experiments by Skipper where the use of gestures led to "a division of labor between areas related to language or action (Broca's area and premotor/primary motor cortex respectively)", The use of gestures in combination with speech allowed the brain to decrease the need for "semantic control". Because gestures aided in understanding the relayed message, there was not as great a need for semantic selection or control that would otherwise be required of the listener through [[Broca's area]]. Gestures are a way to represent the thoughts of an individual, which are prompted in working memory. The results of an experiment revealed that adults have increased accuracy when they used pointing gestures as opposed to simply counting in their heads (without the use of pointing gestures)<ref name="VASC, Dermina 2013"/> Furthermore, the results of a study conducted by Marstaller and Burianová suggest that the use of gestures affect working memory. The researchers found that those with low capacity of working memory who were able to use gestures actually recalled more terms than those with low capacity who were not able to use gestures.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marstaller | first1 = Lars | last2 = Burianová | first2 = Hana | year = 2013 | title = Individual differences in the gesture effect on working memory | journal = Psychonomic Bulletin & Review| volume = 20 | issue = 3| pages = 496–500 | doi = 10.3758/s13423-012-0365-0 | pmid = 23288659 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Although there is an obvious connection in the aid of gestures in understanding a message, "the understanding of gestures is not the same as understanding spoken language." These two functions work together and gestures help facilitate understanding, but they only "partly drive the neural language system".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Willems | first1 = Roel M. | last2 = Hagoort | first2 = Peter | year = 2007 | title = Neural Evidence for the Interplay between Language, Gesture, and Action: A Review | journal = Brain and Language | volume = 101 | issue = 3| pages = 14–6 | doi=10.1016/j.bandl.2007.03.004| pmid = 17416411 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0013-198D-E | s2cid = 14874308 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
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== Philosophy ==
==See also==
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* Muñoz, Jose Esteban (2001). "Gesture, Ephemera and Queer Feeling: Approaching Kevin Aviance." ''Dancing Desires: Choreographing Sexualities on and off Stage''. Ed. [[Jane Desmond]]. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 423–442.
* Muñoz, José Esteban (2009). ''Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity''. New York: New York University Press.
* Noland, Carrie (2009). ''Agency and Embodiment
* Noland, Carrie, and Sally Ann Ness, editors (2008). ''Migration of Gesture''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Parrill | first1 = Fey | last2 = Sweetser | first2 = Eve | year = 2004 | title = What We Mean by Meaning: Conceptual Integration in Gesture Analysis and Transcription | journal = Gesture | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 197–219 | doi=10.1075/gest.4.2.05par}}
* Rodríguez, Juana María (2007). "Gesture and Utterance Fragments from a Butch-Femme Archive." ''A Companion to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Studies''. Ed. George E. Haggerty and Molly McGarry. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2007. 282–291.
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