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A study done in 1644, by [[John Bulwer]] an [[English people|English]] [[physician]] and early [[Baconian method|Baconian]] [[Natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] wrote five works exploring human communications pertaining to gestures.<ref>Wollock, J. (2002). John Bulwer (1606–1656) and the significance of gesture in 17th-century theories of language and cognition. Gesture. 2 (2),</ref> Bulwer analyzed dozens of gestures and a provided a guide under his book named Chirologia which focused on hand gestures.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chirologia: or the Naturall Language of the Hand|last=Bulwer|first=J|year=1644|location=London|authorlink=John Bulwer}}</ref> In the 19th century, [[Andrea De Jorio]] an Italian [[antiquarian]] who was a considered a of research about [[body language]] published an extensive account of gesture expressions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lw8tzmu9-GYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity|last=de Jorio|first=A|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-253-21506-2|authorlink=Andrea de Jorio|orig-year=1832}}</ref>
[[Andrew N. Meltzoff]] an American psychologist conducted who's internationally renown on infant and child development conducted a study in 1977 on the imitation of facial and manual gestures by new born. The study concluded that "infants between 12 and 21 days of age can imitate the facial and manual gestures of parents".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meltzoff|first=A. N.|last2=Moore|first2=M. K.|date=1977-10-07|title=Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates|journal=Science|volume=198|issue=4312|pages=74–78|issn=0036-8075|pmid=897687|doi=10.1126/science.897687}}</ref> In 1992, [[David McNeill|David Mcneill]] a professor of [[linguistics]] and [[psychology]] at the [[University of Chicago]] wrote a book based on his ten years of research and concluded that "gestures do not simply form a part of what is said, but have an impact on thought itself." Meltzoff argues that gestures directly transfer thoughts into visible forms, showing that ideas and language cannot always be express.<ref>{{Cite
Gesture has frequently been taken up by researchers in the field of dance studies and performance studies in ways that emphasize the ways they are culturally and contextually inflected. Performance scholar, Carrie Noland, describes gestures as "learned techniques of the body" and stresses the way gestures are embodied corporeal forms of cultural communication.<ref>Noland, Carrie. ''Agency and Embodiment : Performing Gestures/producing Culture''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009. p. 2.
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[[File:Unclesamwantyou.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Pointing]] at another person with an extended finger is considered rude in many cultures.]]
Humans have the ability to communicate through language, but they can also express through gestures. In particular, gestures can be transmitted through movements of body parts, face, and body expressions.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Abner et. al.|first=Natasha|year=2015|title=Gesture for Linguists: A Handy Primer|url=https://goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/sites/goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/PDFs/2015_Abner,%20Cooperrider,%20Goldin-Meadow%20-%20Gesture%20for%20Linguists%20A%20Handy%20Primer.pdf|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=9|issue=11|pages=437–449|doi=10.1111/lnc3.12168|pmc=4721265|via=Wiley & Sons}}</ref> Researchers Goldin Meadow and Brentari D. conducted research in 2015 and concluded that communicating through sign language is no different from spoken language.<ref name=":5">''Gesture, sign and language: The coming of age of sign language and gesture studies''. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282760416_Gesture_sign_and_language_The_coming_of_age_of_sign_language_and_gesture_studies</nowiki> [accessed Nov 04 2018].</ref>
=== Communicative vs. informative ===
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==== Communicative (Active Gestures) ====
Communicative gestures are gestures that are produced intentionally and meaningfully by a person as a way of intensifying or modifying speech produced in the vocal tract (or with the hands in the case of sign languages), even though a speaker may not be actively aware that they are producing communicative gestures.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Abner et. al.|first=Natasha|year=2015|title=Gesture for Linguists: A Handy Primer|url=https://goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/sites/goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/PDFs/2015_Abner,%20Cooperrider,%20Goldin-Meadow%20-%20Gesture%20for%20Linguists%20A%20Handy%20Primer.pdf|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=9|issue=11|pages=437–449|doi=10.1111/lnc3.12168|pmc=4721265|via=Wiley & Sons}}</ref> For instance, on the picture above of Uncle Sam, he is pointing and sending a non-verbal form of gesture by implying he wants you to join the U.S. Army. This is a form of symbolic gesture, usually used in the absence of speech. <ref name=":52">''Gesture, sign and language: The coming of age of sign language and gesture studies''. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282760416_Gesture_sign_and_language_The_coming_of_age_of_sign_language_and_gesture_studies</nowiki> [accessed Nov 04 2018].</ref>
== Body Language Relating to Gestures ==
Body language is a form of [[Nonverbal communication|non-verbal communication]] that allows visual cues that transmit messages without speaking. Gestures are movement that are made with the body: arms, hands, facial, etc.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Tipper|first=Christine M.|last2=Signorini|first2=Giulia|last3=Grafton|first3=Scott T.|date=2015-08-21|title=Body language in the brain: constructing meaning from expressive movement
Finger gestures are commonly used in a variety of ways, from point at something to indicate that you want to show a person something to indicating a thumbs up to show everything is good.<ref>Black, Roxie M. (2011). "Cultural Considerations of Hand Use". ''Journal of Hand Therapy''. '''24''' (2): 104–111. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1016/j.jht.2010.09.067</ref>
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== Manual vs. non-manual communicative gestures ==
Within the realm of communicative gestures, the first distinction to be made is between gestures made with the hands and arms, and gestures made with other parts of the body. Examples of Non-manual gestures may include head [[Nod (gesture)|nodding]] and [[Head shake|shaking]], [[Shrug|shoulder shrugging]], and [[facial expression]], among others. Non-manual gestures are attested in languages all around the world, but have not been the primary focus of most research regarding co-speech gesture.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Abner et. al.|first=Natasha|year=2015|title=Gesture for Linguists: A Handy Primer|url=https://goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/sites/goldin-meadow-lab.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/PDFs/2015_Abner,%20Cooperrider,%20Goldin-Meadow%20-%20Gesture%20for%20Linguists%20A%20Handy%20Primer.pdf|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=9|issue=11|pages=437–449|via=Wiley & Sons|doi=10.1111/lnc3.12168|pmid=26807141|pmc=4721265}}</ref>
=== Manual gestures ===
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Motor or beat gestures usually consist of short, repetitive, rhythmic movements that are closely tied with [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] in verbal speech. Unlike symbolic and deictic gestures, beat gestures cannot occur independently of verbal speech. For example, some people wave their hands as they speak to emphasize a certain word or phrase.
These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The so-called beat gestures are used in conjunction with speech and keep time with the rhythm of speech to emphasize certain words or phrases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpi.nl/departments/neurobiology-of-language/news/the-role-of-beat-gesture-and-pitch-accent-in-semantic-processing|title=The role of beat gesture and pitch accent in semantic processing — Neurobiology of Language — Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
====Lexical (iconic)====
Other spontaneous gestures used during speech production known as iconic gestures are more full of content, and may echo, or elaborate, the meaning of the co-occurring speech. They depict aspects of spatial images, actions, people, or objects.<ref name="mayberry">{{cite journal|last=Mayberry|first=Rachel I.|title=Gesture Reflects Language Development: Evidence from Bilingual Children|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=December 2000|volume=9|issue=6|pages=192–196|jstor=20182668|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00092}}</ref> For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing may be synchronous with the utterance, "He threw the ball right into the window."<ref name=McNeill>McNeill (1992). Hand and Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press</ref> Such gestures that are used along with speech tend to be universal.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title = Gesture: Visible Action as Utterance|last = Kendon|first = Adam|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2004|isbn = 978-0-521-83525-
The elaboration of lexical gestures falls on a spectrum of iconic-metaphorical in how closely tied they are to the lexico-semantic content of the verbal speech they coordinate with. More iconic gesture very obviously mirrors the words being spoken (such as drawing a jagged horizontal line in the air to describe mountains) whereas more metaphorical gestures clearly contain some spatial relation to the semantic content of the co-occurring verbal speech, but the relationship between the gesture and the speech might be more ambiguous.
Lexical gestures, like motor gestures, cannot occur independently of verbal speech. The purpose of lexical gestures is still widely contested in the literature with some linguists arguing that lexical gestures serve to amplify or modulate the semantic content of lexical speech,<ref name="Kendon" /> or that it serves a cognitive purpose in aiding in lexical access and retrieval<ref name=":0" /> or verbal working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Gillespie et. al.|first=Maureen|year=2014|title=Verbal Working Memory Predicts Co-Speech Gesture: Evidence from Individual Differences|url=|journal=Cognition|volume=132|issue=2|pages=174–180|via=|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.012|pmid=24813571|pmc=4066192}}</ref> Most recent research suggests that lexical gestures serve a primarily socio-pragmatic role.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Holler et. al.|first=Judith|year=2012|title=It's On the Tip of My Fingers: Co-speech Gestures During Lexical Retrieval in Different Social Contexts|url=|journal=Language and Cognitive Processes|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
==Language development==
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