Editing History of the compass

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[[File:Southern Song Figure Holding Land Compass (9872744925).jpg|thumb|[[Song dynasty]] figurine of a man holding a compass]]
The [[compass]] is a [[magnetometer]] used for [[navigation]] and orientation that shows direction in regards to the [[Cardinal direction|geographic cardinal points]]. The structure of a compass consists of the compass rose, which displays the four main directions on it: [[East]] (E), [[South]] (S), [[West]] (W) and [[North]] (N). The angle increases in the clockwise position. North corresponds to 0°, so east is 90°, south is 180° and west is 270°.

The history of the compass started more than 2000 years ago during the [[Han dynasty]] (202 BC – 220 AD). The first compasses were made of [[lodestone]], a naturally magnetized stone of iron, in Han dynasty China.<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite book|last=Lowrie|first=William|title=Fundamentals of Geophysics|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-521-67596-3|pages=281 |ol=7751496M|url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7751496M/Fundamentals_of_Geophysics |quote=Early in the Han dynasty, between 300 and 200 BC, the Chinese fashioned a rudimentary compass out of lodestone. [...] This compass may have been used in the search for gems and in the selection of sites for houses. [...] Their directive power led to the use of compasses for navigation [...]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shu-hua|first=Li|title=Origine de la Boussole II. Aimant et Boussole|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/348315|journal=Isis|year=1954|volume=45|issue=2|pages=175–177|doi=10.1086/348315|s2cid=143585290|issn=0021-1753|via=JSTOR}}</ref> It was called the "South Pointing Fish" and was used for land navigation by the mid-11th century during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279 AD). [[Shen Kuo]] provided the first explicit description of a magnetized needle in 1088 and [[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]] mentioned its use in maritime navigation in the text ''Pingzhou Table Talks'', dated 1111–1117.<ref name="merrill" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Science and Civilisation in China. Volume IV, Physics and Physical Technology. Part 1, Physics. By <italic>Joseph Needham et al.</italic> (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1962. Pp. xxxiv, 434. $15.00.)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/68.2.463|journal=The American Historical Review|year=1963|doi=10.1086/ahr/68.2.463|issn=1937-5239}}</ref> Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone. Magnetized needles and compasses were first described in medieval Europe by the English theologian [[Alexander Neckam]] (1157–1217 AD). The first literary description of a compass in [[Western Europe]] was recorded in around 1190 and in the [[Islamic world]] 1232.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kreutz|first=Barbara M.|title=Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3102323|journal=Technology and Culture|year=1973|volume=14|issue=3|pages=370|doi=10.2307/3102323|jstor=3102323|s2cid=111540460 |issn=0040-165X|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Dry compasses begin appearing around 1269 in [[Medieval Europe]] and 1300 in the Medieval [[Islamic world]].<ref name=Schmidl /><ref name="Lane, p. 615" /><ref name="OEPST" /> This was replaced in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kalin|first=Ibrahim|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-981257-8|pages=144–147|doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199812578.001.0001}}</ref>

== Navigation prior to the compass ==
{{See also|Polynesian navigation}}
Before the introduction of the compass, geographical position and direction at sea were primarily determined by the sighting of landmarks, supplemented with the observation of the position of celestial bodies.<ref name="Guarnieri 7-1">{{Cite journal|last=Guarnieri|first=M.|year=2014|title=Once Upon a Time, the Compass|journal=IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine|volume=8|issue=2|pages=60–63|doi=10.1109/MIE.2014.2316044|s2cid=11949042}}</ref> Other techniques included sampling mud from the seafloor (China),<ref>{{cite book|title=Science and Civilization in China|author=Joseph Needham|author-link=Joseph Needham|page=279}}</ref> analyzing the flight path of birds, and observing wind, sea debris, and sea state (Polynesia and elsewhere).<ref name="Lewis 1972">{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=David|title=We, the Navigators|date=1972|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=HI|isbn=9780824802295}}</ref> Objects that have been understood as having been used for navigation by measuring the angles between celestial objects were discovered in the Indus Valley site of Lothal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/3082/J_Mar_Archaeol_3_61.pdf?sequence=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808011822/http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/3082/J_Mar_Archaeol_3_61.pdf?sequence=2|url-status=live|title=A Navigational Instrument of the Harappan Sailors|archive-date=2017-08-08}}</ref> The Norse are believed to have used a type of [[Uunartoq Disc|sun compass]] to locate true north. On cloudy days, the Vikings may have used [[cordierite]] or some other [[birefringence|birefringent crystal]] to determine the sun's direction and [[Horizontal coordinate system|elevation]] from the [[Polarization (waves)|polarization]] of daylight; their astronomical knowledge was sufficient to let them use this information to determine their proper heading.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Gábor Horváth|year= 2011|title= On the trail of Vikings with polarized skylight|journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume= 366 |pages= 772–782 |doi= 10.1098/rstb.2010.0194 |issue= 1565 |display-authors= 1 |last2= Barta |first2= A. |last3= Pomozi |first3= I. |last4= Suhai |first4= B. |last5= Hegedus |first5= R. |last6= Akesson |first6= S. |last7= Meyer-Rochow |first7= B. |last8= Wehner |first8= R.|pmc= 3049005 |pmid=21282181}}</ref> The invention of the compass made it possible to determine a heading when the sky was overcast or foggy, and when landmarks were not in sight. This enabled mariners to navigate safely far from land, increasing sea trade, and contributing to the [[Age of Discovery]].<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Genius That Was China: East and West in the making of the modern world.
|url=https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers
|url-access=registration
|last1=Merson
 |first1= John
|year= 1990|publisher = The Overlook Press
|location=Woodstock, New York
|isbn= 0-87951-397-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers/page/61 61]
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Novum Organum Scientiarum
 |last=Bacon
 |first=Francis
|year= 1620
|url=http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm
| quote = It is well to observe the force and virtue of consequences of discoveries, and there are to be seen nowhere more conspicuously than in those three which were unknown to the ancients, and of which the origins, although recent, are obscure and inglorious; namely printing, gunpowder, and the magnet.  For these three have changed the whole state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, insomuch that no empire, no secret, no star seems to have exerted greater power in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries... had done more to transform the modern world and mark it off from antiquity and the middle ages. }}</ref>

== Geomancy and Feng Shui ==
[[File:Chinese Geomantic Compass c. 1760, National Maritime Museum.JPG|thumb|right|Chinese geomantic compass c. 1760 from the [[National Maritime Museum]] in London]]
{{main|Luopan}}
The compass was invented in China during the [[Han dynasty]] between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD where it was called the '''"south-governor"'''(''sīnán'' {{lang|zh|司南}}) or '''"South Pointing Fish"''' ({{lang|zh|指南魚}}).<ref name=merrill /> The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for [[geomancy]] and [[fortune-telling]] by the [[China|Chinese]]. The earliest [[China|Chinese]] [[magnetic]] compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings by the geomantic principles of ''[[feng shui]]''. These early compasses were made with [[lodestone]], a form of the mineral [[magnetite]] that is a naturally occurring [[magnet]] and aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field.<ref name="Guarnieri 7-1"/> People in ancient China discovered that if a lodestone was suspended so it could turn freely, it would always point toward the magnetic poles. Early compasses were used to choose areas suitable for building houses, growing crops, and to search for rare gems. Compasses were later adapted for navigation during the [[Song dynasty]] in the 11th century.<ref name="cambridge1" />

Based on Krotser and Coe's discovery of an [[Olmec]] [[hematite]] artifact in [[Mesoamerica]], [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to 1400–1000 BC, astronomer John Carlson has hypothesized that the Olmec might have used the geomagnetic [[lodestone]] earlier than 1000 BC for [[geomancy]], a method of [[divination]], which if proven true, predates the Chinese use of magnetism for [[feng shui]] by a millennium.<ref name="John B. Carlson 1975">John B. Carlson, "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy? Multidisciplinary Analysis of an Olmec Hematite Artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico", ''Science'', New Series, Vol. 189, No. 4205 (5 September 1975), pp. 753-760 (1975)</ref> Carlson speculates that the Olmecs used similar artifacts as a directional device for astronomical or [[geomancy|geomantic]] purposes but does not suggest navigational usage. The artifact is part of a polished [[hematite]] bar with a groove at one end, possibly used for sighting. Carlson's claims have been disputed by other scientific researchers, who have suggested that the artifact is actually a constituent piece of a decorative ornament and not a purposely built compass.<ref>{{cite book|last=Needham|first=Joseph |author2=Lu Gwei-Djen|title=Trans-Pacific Echoes and Resonances: Listening Once Again |publisher=World Scientific |year=1985 |page=21}}</ref> Several other hematite or magnetite artifacts have been found at pre-Columbian archaeological sites in Mexico and Guatemala.<ref name="A. P. Guimarães 2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Guimarães | first1 = A. P. | year = 2004 | title = Mexico and the early history of magnetism | journal = Revista Mexicana de Fisica | volume = 50 | pages = 51–53 | bibcode = 2004RMxFE..50...51G }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/CS-MM-Chap.%203.htm |title=Chapter 3 |publisher=Dartmouth.edu |access-date=2015-06-06}}</ref>

== Early navigational compass ==
A number of early cultures used [[lodestone]] so they could turn, as magnetic compasses for navigation. Early mechanical compasses are referenced in written records of the [[China|Chinese]], who began using it for navigation "some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850."<ref>{{cite book|last=Needham|first=Joseph|title=The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 3|year=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=176|isbn=978-0-521-31560-9|quote=the introduction of the mariner's compass on Chinese ships some time before 1050, possibly as early as 850}}</ref><ref name="Guarnieri 7-1" /> At present, according to Kreutz, scholarly consensus is that the Chinese invention used in navigation pre-dates the first European mention of a compass by 150 years.<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 367">Kreutz, p. 367</ref> The first recorded appearance of the use of the compass in Europe (1190)<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 368" /> is earlier than in the Muslim world (1232),<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 370">Kreutz, p. 370</ref><ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 369">Kreutz, p. 369</ref> as a description of a magnetized needle and its use among sailors occurs in [[Alexander Neckam]]'s ''De naturis rerum'' (On the Natures of Things), written in 1190.<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 368">Kreutz, p. 368</ref><ref name="Lanza 2006 255">{{cite book | last1= Lanza | first1=Roberto | last2=Meloni | first2=Antonio | title=The earth's magnetism an introduction for geologists | year=2006 | publisher=Springer | location=Berlin | page=255 | isbn=978-3-540-27979-2}}</ref>

However, there are questions over diffusion. Some historians suggest that the Arabs introduced the compass from China to Europe.<ref name="needhamb">{{cite book|last=Needham|first=Joseph|title=Cambridge University Press|publisher=University of California Press|pages=173|quote=Thus the possibility presents itself that... it may have formed part of one of those transmissions from Asia which we find in so many fields of applied science}}</ref><ref name="mceachren">{{cite book|last=McEachren|first=Justin W.|title=General Science Quarterly, Volumes 5-6|publisher=University of California Press|pages=337|quote=From the Chinese, the Arabs in all probability learned to use the magnetic needle, and in this round-about fashion it was brought to Europe}}</ref> Some suggested the compass was transmitted from China to Europe and the Islamic world via the Indian Ocean,<ref name=Bentley>{{cite book|last=Bentley|first= Jerry|title=Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past |pages=637}}</ref> or was brought by the crusaders to Europe from China.<ref name=Derek>[[Derek J. de Solla Price]], [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30001/30001-h/30001-h.htm On the Origin of Clockwork, Perpetual Motion Devices, and the Compass]</ref> However, some scholars have proposed an independent European invention of the compass.<ref name=ehstmnw>'' Enclyopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', "Compass" entry, Helaine Selin, 1997, Springer-Science+Business Media. page 233</ref>

=== China ===
{{Further|Four Great Inventions|List of Chinese inventions|History of science and technology in China}}
[[File:Model Si Nan of Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|Model of a [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–220 AD) south-indicating ladle or ''sinan'' made of magnetized lodestones.<ref name=en1>{{cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|page=541|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|year=1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|quote=The device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Chinese Compass – 400 BC - MagLab |url=https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/museum/early-chinese-compass |access-date= |website=nationalmaglab.org |language=en-GB}}</ref>]]

These are noteworthy [[History of China|Chinese]] literary references in evidence for its antiquity:
* The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for [[divination]] as early as the [[History of Science and Technology in China|Chinese]] [[Han dynasty]] and [[Tang dynasty]] (since about 206 BC).<ref name="cambridge1"/><ref name=merrill>{{cite book|last=Merrill|first=Ronald T.|title=The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/earthsmagneticfi00merr|url-access=registration|year=1983|publisher=Academic press|location=San Francisco|isbn=0-12-491242-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/earthsmagneticfi00merr/page/1 1]|edition=2nd printing|author2=McElhinny, Michael W.}}</ref><ref name="Li Shu-hua, p. 176">Li Shu-hua, p. 176</ref> The compass was used in [[Song dynasty]] China by the military for [[Land navigation (military)|navigational orienteering]] by 1040–44,<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 367" /><ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 252">Needham, p. 252</ref><ref name="Li Shu-hua, p. 182f">Li Shu-hua, p. 182f.</ref> and was used for maritime navigation by 1111 to 1117.<ref name="Ronan">{{cite book|author1=Colin A. Ronan|author2=Joseph Needham|title=The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjRAiqGSJ50C&pg=PA27|date=25 July 1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31560-9|pages=28–29}}</ref>
* The earliest [[Chinese literature]] reference to magnetism lies in the 4th century BC writings of [[Guiguzi|Wang Xu]] (鬼谷子): "The lodestone attracts iron."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7209/pg7209.html |title=Archived copy |website=www.gutenberg.org |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131117175834/http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7209/pg7209.html |archive-date=17 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The book also notes that the people of the state of Zheng always knew their position using a "south-pointer"; some authors suggest that this refers to early use of the compass.<ref name="cambridge1" /><ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 190">Needham p. 190</ref>
* The first mention of a spoon, speculated to be a lodestone, observed "pointing in a [[cardinal direction]]" is a Chinese work composed between 70 and 80 AD (''[[Lunheng]]''), which records that "But when the south-pointing spoon is thrown upon the ground, it comes to rest pointing at the south."<ref name="Needham18">Needham p. 18</ref> Within the text, the author [[Wang Chong]] describes the spoon as a phenomenon that he has personally observed.<ref name="Needham182">Needham p. 18 "''here the author is contrasting a fable which he did not believe with actual events he has seen with his own eyes''"</ref> Although the passage does not explicitly mention magnetism,<ref name="Li Shu-Hua 180">Li Shu-Hua, p. 180</ref> according to Chen-Cheng Yih, the "device described by Wang Chong has been widely considered to be the earliest form of the magnetic compass."<ref name=en1 />
* The first clear account of [[magnetic declination]] occurs in the ''Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng'' ("Mr. Kuan's Geomantic Instructor"), dating to 880.<ref name="clerks">{{cite book|last=Needham|first=Joseph|title=Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West|year=1970|pages=243–244|isbn=978-0-521-07235-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote=The geomantic book Kuan Shih Ti Li Chih Meng... has the first account of it... the Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching... includes an implicit reference to declination}}</ref> Another text, the ''Chiu Thien Hsuan Nu Chhing Nang Hai Chio Ching'' ("Blue Bag Sea Angle Manual") from around the same period, also has an implicit description of magnetic declination. It has been argued that this knowledge of declination requires the use of the compass.<ref name="clerks" />
* A reference to a magnetized needle as a "mysterious needle" appears in 923–926 in the ''Chung Hua Ku Chin Chu'' text written by Ma Kao. The same passage is also attributed to the 4th-century AD writer Tshui Pao, although it is postulated that the former text is more authentic. The shape of the needle is compared to that of a tadpole, and may indicate the transition between "lodestone spoons" and "iron needles."<ref name="Needham273-274">Needham p. 273-274</ref>
* The earliest reference to a specific magnetic "direction finder" device for land navigation is recorded in a [[Song dynasty]] book dated to 1040–44. There is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." The ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' (武經總要, "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques") stated: "When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished...they made use of the [mechanical] [[south-pointing carriage]], or the south-pointing fish."<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 252" /> This was achieved by heating of metal (especially if steel), known today as [[Thermoremanent magnetization|thermoremanence]], and would have been capable of producing a weak state of magnetization.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 252" /> While the Chinese achieved magnetic [[remanence]] and induction by this time, in both Europe and Asia the phenomenon was attributed to the supernatural and occult, until about 1600 when [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]] published his ''[[De Magnete]]''.<ref name="Elman">{{cite book|author=Benjamin A. Elman|title=On Their Own Terms: Science in China, 1550–1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qm57OqARqpAC&pg=PA24|date=30 June 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-03647-5|page=242}}</ref>
* The first incontestable reference to a "magnetized needle" in Chinese literature appears in 1088.<ref name="Li Shu-hua, p. 182f"/> The ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'', written by the [[Song dynasty]] [[polymath]] scientist [[Shen Kuo#Magnetic needle compass|Shen Kuo]], contained a detailed description of how [[geomancer]]s magnetized a [[Dial (measurement)|needle]] by rubbing its tip with lodestone and hung the magnetic needle with one single strain of [[silk]] with a bit of wax attached to the center of the needle. Shen Kuo pointed out that a needle prepared this way sometimes pointed south, sometimes north.
* The earliest explicit recorded use of a magnetic compass for maritime navigation is found in [[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]]'s book ''Pingchow Table Talks'' (萍洲可談; Pingzhou Ketan) and dates from 1111 to 1117: ''The ship's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts; at night they steer by the stars, and in the daytime by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south-pointing needle''.<ref name="Ronan"/>

[[File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg|thumb|upright|Diagram of a [[Ming dynasty]] mariner's compass]]

Thus, the use of a magnetic compass by the military for [[Land navigation (military)|land navigation]] occurred sometime before 1044, but incontestable evidence for the use of the compass as a maritime navigational device did not appear until 1117.

The typical Chinese navigational compass was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water.<ref name="Kreutz, p. 373">Kreutz, p. 373</ref> According to [[Joseph Needham|Needham]], the Chinese in the [[Song dynasty]] and continuing [[Yuan dynasty]] did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass.<ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 255">Needham p. 255</ref> Evidence of this is found in the ''Shilin Guang Ji'' ("Guide Through the Forest of Affairs"), published in 1325 by Chen Yuanjing, although its compilation had taken place between 1100 and 1250.<ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 255"/> The dry compass in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction.<ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 255"/> Although the European compass-card in a box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]] in the 16th century (who had, in turn, learned of it from Europeans),<ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 289">Needham, p. 289.</ref> the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.<ref name="Needham volume 4 part 1 290">Needham, p. 290</ref> However, according to Kreutz there is only a single Chinese reference to a dry-mounted needle (built into a pivoted wooden tortoise) which is dated to between 1150 and 1250 and claims that there is no clear indication that Chinese mariners ever used anything but the floating needle in a bowl until the 16th century.<ref name="Kreutz, p. 373" />

The first recorded use of a 48 position mariner's compass on sea navigation was noted in ''The Customs of Cambodia'' by Yuan dynasty diplomat [[Zhou Daguan]], he described his 1296 voyage from [[Wenzhou]] to [[Angkor Thom]] in detail; when his ship set sail from Wenzhou, the mariner took a needle direction of “ding Wei” position, which is equivalent to 22.5 degree SW. After they arrived at [[Ba Ria|Baria]], the mariner took "Kun Shen needle", or 52.5 degree SW.<ref>Zhou</ref> [[Zheng He]]'s Navigation Map, also known as the "[[Mao Kun map|Mao Kun Map]]", contains a large amount of detail "needle records" of [[Treasure voyages|Zheng He's expeditions]].<ref name="Ma, Appendix 2">Ma, Appendix 2</ref>

=== Medieval Europe ===
[[File:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg|thumb|upright|A drawing of a compass in a mid 14th-century copy of ''Epistola de magnete'' of [[Peter Peregrinus]].<ref>[http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/detail/ODLodl~1~1~31162~111146:Letter-of-Peregrine-de-Maricourt-to?qvq=w4s:/what/MS.%20Ashmole%201522;lc:ODLodl~29~29,ODLodl~7~7,ODLodl~6~6,ODLodl~14~14,ODLodl~8~8,ODLodl~23~23,ODLodl~1~1,ODLodl~24~24&mi=34&trs=35 MS. Ashmole 1522, fol. 186r], Bodleian Library.</ref>]]

[[Alexander Neckam]] reported the use of a magnetic compass for the region of the English Channel in the texts ''De utensilibus'' and ''De naturis rerum'',<ref name=Schmidl>{{cite journal|title=Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass|first=Petra G.|last=Schmidl|journal=Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies|year=1996–97|volume=1|pages=81–132}} http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902060243/http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4 |date=2014-09-02 }}</ref> written between 1187 and 1202, after he returned to England from France<ref name="alxn">{{cite book|last=Neckam|first=Alexander|title=Alexandri Neckam De Naturis Rerum Libri Duoi|year=1863|publisher=Longman, Roberts, and Green|page=xi}}</ref> and prior to entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester.<ref name="brill1">{{cite book|last=Gutman|first=Oliver|title=Liber Celi Et Mundi|year=2003|publisher=BRILL|page=xx|isbn=9789004132283|quote=probably whilst teaching theology at Oxford before entering the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester in 1202}}</ref> In his 1863 edition of [[Alexander Neckam|Neckam]]'s ''De naturis rerum'', Thomas Wright provides a translation of the passage in which Neckam mentions sailors being guided by a compass' needle: <blockquote>''The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy whether they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship's course is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the north.''<ref>T. Wright, (ed.) 'Preface', ''Alexandri Neckam De Naturis Rerum Libri duo with the poem of the same author, De laudibus divinae sapientiae'', (London, 1863), xxxiv. https://archive.org/details/alexandrineckam00neckgoog</ref> </blockquote>

In 1269 [[Petrus Peregrinus]] of Maricourt described a floating compass for astronomical purposes as well as a dry compass for seafaring, in his well-known ''Epistola de magnete''.<ref name=Schmidl />

In the Mediterranean, the introduction of the compass, at first only known as a magnetized pointer floating in a bowl of water,<ref>Kreutz, p. 368–369</ref> went hand in hand with improvements in [[dead reckoning]] methods, and the development of [[Portolan chart]]s, leading to more navigation during winter months in the second half of the 13th century.<ref>Lane, p. 606f.</ref><ref name="Guarnieri 7-1"/> While the practice from ancient times had been to curtail sea travel between October and April, due in part to the lack of dependable clear skies during the Mediterranean winter, the prolongation of the sailing season resulted in a gradual, but sustained increase in shipping movement; by around 1290 the sailing season could start in late January or February, and end in December.<ref>Lane, p. 608</ref> The additional few months were of considerable economic importance. For instance, it enabled [[Venice|Venetian]] convoys to make two round trips a year to the [[Levant]], instead of one.<ref>Lane, p. 608 & 610</ref>

Between 1295 and 1302, [[Flavio Gioja]] converted the compass from a needle floating in water to what we use today, a round box with a compass card that rotates 360 degrees attached to a magnetic element.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/riddleofcompass00acze|title=The riddle of the compass : the invention that changed the world|last=Aczel|first=Amir D.|date=2001|publisher=Harcourt|isbn=0151005060|edition=1st|location=New York|oclc=45102891|url-access=registration}}</ref> 

At the same time, traffic between the Mediterranean and northern Europe also increased, with the first evidence of direct commercial voyages from the Mediterranean into the English Channel coming in the closing decades of the 13th century, and one factor may be that the compass made traversal of the [[Bay of Biscay]] safer and easier.<ref>Lane, p. 608 & 613</ref> However, critics like Kreutz have suggested that it was later in 1410 that anyone really started steering by compass.<ref>Kreutz, p. 372–373</ref>

=== Muslim world ===
[[File: Al-Ashraf compass and qibla diagram.png|thumb|[[Al-Ashraf Umar II|Al-Ashraf]]'s diagram of the compass and Qibla. From MS Cairo TR 105, copied in Yemen, 1293.<ref name=Schmidl />]]

The earliest reference to a compass in the [[Muslim world]] occurs in a [[Persian language|Persian]] talebook from 1232, ''[[Jawami ul-Hikayat]]'',<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 370" /> where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the [[Red Sea]] or the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name=OEPST /> The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China.<ref name="Needham12-13">Needham p. 12-13 "''...that the floating fish-shaped iron leaf spread outside China as a technique, we know from the description of Muhammad al' Awfi just two hundred years later''"</ref> The earliest [[Arabic language|Arabic]] reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo.<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 370" /><ref>''Kitāb Kanz al-tujjār fī maʿrifat al-aḥjār''</ref> Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to Alexandria in 1242.<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 370" /> Since the author describes having witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the [[Arab world]] accordingly.<ref name="Barbara M. Kreutz 370" /> Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.<ref name=lancaster/>

Late in the 13th century, the [[Yemen]]i Sultan and [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]] [[al-Malik al-Ashraf]] described the use of the compass as a "[[Qibla]] indicator" to find the direction to [[Mecca]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Savage-Smith | first1 = Emilie|author-link1 =Emilie Savage-Smith | year = 1988 | title = Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine | journal = [[Isis (journal)|Isis]] | volume = 79 | issue = 2| pages = 246–266 [263] | doi=10.1086/354701| pmid = 3049439 | s2cid = 33884974 }}</ref> In a treatise about [[astrolabes]] and [[sundials]], al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.<ref name=Schmidl /><ref name=BEA>{{cite encyclopedia | editor = Thomas Hockey|display-editors=etal | last = Schmidl | first = Petra G. | title=Ashraf: al‐Malik al‐Ashraf (Mumahhid al‐Dīn) ʿUmar ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿUmar ibn ʿAlī ibn Rasūl | encyclopedia = The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers | publisher = Springer | year = 2007 | location = New York | pages = 66–7 | url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ashraf_BEA.htm | isbn=9780387310220}} ([http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ashraf_BEA.pdf PDF version])</ref>

In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the [[Egypt]]ian astronomer and [[muezzin]] Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card.<ref name="Schmidl" /> In the 14th century, the [[Syria]]n astronomer and timekeeper [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375) invented a [[time]]keeping device incorporating both a universal [[sundial]] and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of [[salat|prayers]].<ref name="King-1983">{{Harv|King|1983|pp=547–8}}</ref> [[Islamic geography|Arab navigators]] also introduced the 32-point [[compass rose]] during this time.<ref name="Tibbetts">{{cite journal | last1 = Tibbetts | first1 = G. R. | year = 1973 | title = Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques | journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 97–108 [105–6] | doi=10.1017/s0041977x00098013| s2cid = 120284234 }}</ref> In 1399, an Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.<ref name=lancaster>{{cite web|url=http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol1/1_081-132schmidl2.pdf |title=Early Arabic Sources on the Magnetic Compass |website=Lancaster.ac.uk |access-date=2016-08-02}}</ref>
[[File:Compass thumbnail.jpg|thumb|Navigational [[sailor]]'s compass rose, 1607]]

In the 15th century, the description given by [[Ibn Majid]] while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of [[magnetic declination]]. An explicit value for the declination is given by [[ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī]] (fl. the 1450s in Cairo).<ref name=OEPST />

Pre modern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term ''ṭāsa'' (lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or ''ālat al-qiblah'' ("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.<ref name=OEPST>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-981257-8| editor= Ibrahim Kalin | last = Schmidl | first = Petra G. | title = Compass | encyclopedia = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam| date = 2014-05-08| pages=144–6}}</ref>

[[Friedrich Hirth]] suggested that Arab and Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = New York, The Columbia university press| last = Hirth| first = Friedrich| title = Ancient history of China to the end of the Chóu dynasty| date = 1908| url = https://archive.org/details/ancienthistoryof00hirt|page=[https://archive.org/details/ancienthistoryof00hirt/page/n157 134]}}</ref> However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistranslation" of the term ''chia-ling'' found in [[Zhu Yu (author)|Zhu Yu]]'s book ''Pingchow Table Talks''.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-05802-5| last = Needham| first = Joseph| title = Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics| date = 1962 |pages=279–80}}</ref>

=== India ===
The development of the magnetic compass is highly uncertain. The compass is mentioned in fourth-century AD [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[nautical]] books; moreover, its early name of ''macchayantra'' (fish machine) suggest a Chinese origin. In its Indian form, the wet compass often consisted of a fish-shaped magnet, float in a bowl filled with oil.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|editor=Helaine Selin |publisher= Springer|page=197|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUAPAAAAIAAJ&q=%22matsya+yantra%22 |title=The American Journal of Science|accessdate=2009-06-30|year=1919}}</ref>

=== Medieval Africa ===
There is evidence that the distribution of the compass from China likely also reached eastern Africa by way of trade through the end of the Silk Road that ended in [[East Africa]]n centre of trade in [[Somalia]] and the [[Swahili people|Swahili]] city-state kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stockwell|author-link=Foster Stockwell|first=Foster|title=Westerners in China : a history of exploration and trade, ancient times through the present|year=2003|publisher=McFarland & Co. Publishers|location=Jefferson, NC|isbn=978-0-7864-1404-8|page=14}}</ref> There is evidence that Swahili maritime merchants and sailors acquired the compass at some point and used it for navigation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bulliet|first=Richard W.|title=The earth and its peoples : a global history|date=January 2010|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-538-74438-6|page=381|edition=5th, Student|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

== Dry compass ==
[[File:Kardanischer-Kompass.jpg|thumb|[[Early modern period|Early modern]] dry compass suspended by a [[gimbal]] (1570)]]

The dry mariner's compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a [[wind rose]], whereby "the wind rose or compass card is attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed direction, indicating always what course the ship was on".<ref name="Lane, p. 615">Lane, p. 615</ref> Later, compasses were often fitted into a [[gimbal]] mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on the pitching and the rolling deck of a ship.

While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar [[Peter Peregrinus]] in 1269,<ref>Taylor</ref> and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300,<ref name=Schmidl /> traditionally [[Flavio Gioja]] (fl. 1302), an Italian [[pilot (harbor)|pilot]] from [[Amalfi]], has been credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass its familiar appearance.<ref name="Frederic C. Lane 616">Lane, p. 616</ref><ref name="Guarnieri 7-1"/> Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is also described in a commentary on [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' from 1380, while an earlier source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318),<ref>Kreutz, p. 374</ref> supporting the notion that the dry compass was known in Europe by then.<ref name="Kreutz, p. 373" />

== Bearing compass ==
[[File: Bearing compass.jpg|thumb|upright|Bearing compass (18th century)]]

A ''bearing compass'' is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of [[bearing (navigation)|bearings]] of objects by aligning them with the [[lubber line]] of the bearing compass.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.westcoastoffshore.ca/Search.aspx?k=compass |title=Hand Bearing Compass |year=2009 |publisher=West Coast Offshore Marine |access-date=2014-12-28}}</ref> A ''[[surveyor's compass]]'' is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with [[Cartography|map making]]. These were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in 1728 [[Cyclopaedia, or a Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]]. The bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. In 1885, a patent was granted for a [[hand compass]] fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the ''[[sighting compass|prismatic compass]]''.<ref>Frazer, Persifor, ''A Convenient Device to be Applied to the Hand Compass'', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 22, No. 118 (Mar. 1885), p. 216</ref> Another sighting method was employing a reflective mirror. First patented in 1902, the ''Bézard compass'' consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it.<ref name="Article">{{cite web|author=Jean-Patrick Donzey |url=http://www.compassmuseum.com/hand/bezard.htm |title=Bezard 1 |publisher=Compass Museum |access-date=2016-08-02}}</ref><ref>Barnes, Scott, Churchill, James, and Jacobson, Cliff, ''The Ultimate Guide to Wilderness Navigation'', Globe Pequot Press (2002), {{ISBN|1-58574-490-5}}, {{ISBN|978-1-58574-490-9}}, p. 27</ref> This arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror.<ref name="Article" /><ref>Barnes, p. 27</ref>

In 1928, Gunnar Tillander, a Swedish unemployed instrument maker and an avid participant in the sport of [[orienteering]], invented a new style of bearing the compass. Dissatisfied with existing field compasses, which required a separate protractor to take bearings from a map, Tillander decided to incorporate both instruments into a single instrument. It combined a compass with a protractor built into the base. His design featured a metal compass capsule containing a magnetic needle with orienting marks mounted into a transparent protractor baseplate with a lubber line (later called a ''direction of travel indicator''). By rotating the capsule to align the needle with the orienting marks, the course bearing could be read at the lubber line. Moreover, by aligning the baseplate with a course drawn on a map – ignoring the needle – the compass could also function as a protractor. Tillander took his design to fellow orienteers [[Björn Kjellström|Björn]], Alvin, and Alvar Kjellström, who were selling basic compasses, and the four men modified Tillander's design.<ref name="LIT">Litsky, Frank, ''Bjorn Kjellstrom, 84, Orienteer and Inventor of Modern Compass'', Obituaries, The New York Times, 1 September 1995</ref> In December 1932, the Silva Company was formed with Tillander and the three Kjellström brothers, and the company began manufacturing and selling its [[Silva compass|Silva orienteering compass]] to Swedish orienteers, outdoorsmen, and army officers.<ref name="LIT" /><ref>Seidman, p. 68</ref><ref>Kjellström, Björn, ''19th Hole: The Readers Take Over: Orienteering'', Sports Illustrated, 3 March 1969</ref><ref>Silva Sweden AB, ''Silva Sweden AB and Silva Production AB Become One Company: History'', Press Release 28 April 2000</ref>

== Liquid compass ==
[[File: Flush mount compass.jpg|thumb|A surface liquid-filled compass on a boat]]

The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir [[Edmond Halley]] at a meeting of the [[Royal Society]] in 1690.<ref>Gubbins, David, ''Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism'', Springer Press (2007), {{ISBN|1-4020-3992-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4020-3992-8}}, p. 67</ref> However, as early liquid compasses were fairly cumbersome and heavy and subject to damage, their main advantage was aboard the ship. Protected in a [[binnacle]] and normally [[gimbal]]-mounted, the liquid inside the compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the Englishman Francis Crow in 1813.<ref>Fanning, A.E., ''Steady As She Goes: A History of the Compass Department of the Admiralty'', HMSO, Department of the Admiralty (1986), pp. 1-10</ref><ref>Gubbins, p. 67</ref> Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small boats were occasionally used by the [[Royal Navy]] from the 1830s through 1860, but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type.<ref>Fanning, A.E., pp. 1-10</ref> In the latter year, the American physicist and inventor [[Edward Samuel Ritchie]] patented a greatly improved liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the [[United States Navy]], and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.<ref>Warner, Deborah, ''Compasses and Coils: The Instrument Business of Edward S. Ritchie'', Rittenhouse, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1994), pp. 1-24</ref>

Despite these advances, the liquid compass was not introduced generally into the Royal Navy until 1908. An early version developed by RN Captain Creek proved to be operational under heavy gunfire and seas but was felt to lack navigational precision compared with the design by Lord Kelvin.<ref name="W. H. Creak 238-239" /><ref>Gubbins, p. 67: The use of parallel or multiple needles was by no means a new development; their use in dry-mount marine compasses was pioneered by navigation officers of the [[Dutch East India Company]] as early as 1649.</ref> However, with ship and gun sizes continuously increasing, the advantages of the liquid compass over the Kelvin compass became unavoidably apparent to the Admiralty, and after widespread adoption by other navies, the liquid compass was generally adopted by the Royal Navy.<ref name="W. H. Creak 238-239">W. H. Creak: "The History of the Liquid Compass", ''The Geographical Journal'', Vol. 56, No. 3 (1920), pp. 238-239</ref>

[[File:Aero Magnetic Compass.jpg|thumb|left|Typical aircraft-mounted magnetic compass]]
Liquid compasses were next adapted for aircraft. In 1909, Captain [[F.O. Creagh-Osborne]], Superintendent of Compasses at the Admiralty, introduced his ''Creagh-Osborne'' aircraft compass, which used a mixture of alcohol and distilled water to damp the compass card.<ref>Davis, Sophia, ''Raising The Aerocompass In Early Twentieth-century Britain'', British Journal for the History of Science, published online by Cambridge University Press, 15 Jul 2008, pp. 1-22</ref><ref>Colvin, Fred H., ''Aircraft Mechanics Handbook: A Collection of Facts and Suggestions from Factory and Flying Field to Assist in Caring for Modern Aircraft'', McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. (1918), pp. 347-348</ref> After the success of this invention, Capt. Creagh-Osborne adapted his design to a much smaller pocket model<ref>The Compass Museum, [http://www.compassmuseum.com/wrist/wrist_1.htm#C-O Article]: Though the ''Creagh-Osborne'' was offered in a wrist-mount model, it proved too bulky and heavy in this form.</ref> for individual use<ref>Hughes, Henry A., ''Improvements in prismatic compasses with special reference to the Creagh-Osborne patent compass'', Transactions of The Optical Society 16, London: The Optical Society (1915), pp. 17-43: The first liquid-damped compass compact enough for pocket or pouch was the ''Creagh-Osborne'', patented in 1915 in Great Britain.</ref> by officers of artillery or infantry, receiving a patent in 1915.<ref>Hughes, Henry A., pp. 17-43</ref>

In December 1931, the newly founded Silva Company of Sweden introduced its first baseplate or bearing compass that used a liquid-filled capsule to damp the swing of the magnetized needle.<ref name="LIT"/> The liquid-damped Silva took only four seconds for its needle to settle in comparison to thirty seconds for the original version.<ref name="LIT" />

In 1933 [[Tuomas Vohlonen]], a surveyor by profession, applied for a patent for a unique method of filling and sealing a lightweight [[celluloid]] compass housing or capsule with a petroleum distillate to dampen the needle and protect it from shock and wear caused by excessive motion.<ref name="december2001">{{cite web |url=http://www.suunto.com/suunto/Worlds/outdoor/main/outdoor_article_normal.jsp |title=Suunto Outdoor World - Main |website=www.suunto.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216024046/http://www.suunto.com/suunto/Worlds/outdoor/main/outdoor_article_normal.jsp |archive-date=16 February 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Introduced in a wrist-mount model in 1936 as the [[Suunto]] Oy ''Model M-311'', the new capsule design led directly to the lightweight liquid-filled field compasses of today.<ref name="december2001" />
{{clear}}

== Gyrocompass ==

The first gyroscope for scientific use was made by the French physicist [[Léon Foucault]] (1819–1868) in 1852, who also named the device while researching in the same line that led him to use the eponymous pendulum, for which he was awarded a Copley Medal by the Royal Society. The gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos in The Netherlands after continuous spinning was made possible by small electric motors, which were, in turn, a technological outcome of the discovery of magnetic induction.<ref name="Guarnieri 7-1"/> Yet only in 1906 was the German inventor [[Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe]] (1872–1931) able to build the first practical gyrocompass. It had two major advantages over magnetic compasses: it indicated true north and was unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as the steel hull of ships. Thus, it was widely used in the warships of World War I and modern aircraft.<ref>see also ''Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914'', Chapter XXVII ('The Gyro-Compass'), [https://archive.org/details/manualofnavigati00grea/page/360/mode/2up?view=theater online] (archive.org)</ref>

== Non-navigational uses ==

=== Astronomy ===
Three compasses meant for establishing the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] was described by [[Peter of Maricourt|Peter Peregrinus]] in 1269 (referring to experiments made before 1248)<ref>Taylor, p. 1f.</ref> Late in the 13th century, [[al-Malik al-Ashraf]] of Yemen wrote a treatise on astrolabes, which included instructions and diagrams on using the compass to determine the [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār) and [[Qibla]].<ref name=Schmidl /> In 1300, a treatise written by the [[Egypt]]ian astronomer and [[muezzin]] Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass for use as a "Qibla indicator" to find the direction to [[Mecca]]. Ibn Simʿūn's the compass, however, did not feature a compass card nor the familiar glass box.<ref name=Schmidl /> In the 14th century, the [[Syria]]n astronomer and timekeeper [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375) invented a [[time]]keeping device incorporating both a universal [[sundial]] and the magnetic compass. He invented it to find the times of [[salat]] prayers.<ref name="King-1983"/>

=== Building orientation ===
Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century [[Denmark]]: one fourth of its 570 [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque churches]] are rotated by 5–15 degrees clockwise from true east–west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x|pages=293–303| id=See page 293|title=Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark|journal=Archaeometry|volume=34|issue=2|year=1992|last1=Abrahamsen|first1=N.}}</ref> Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in [[Europe]] by then.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4754.1992.tb00499.x|pages=293–303| id=See page 303|title=Evidence for Church Orientation by Magnetic Compass in Twelfth-Century Denmark|journal=Archaeometry|volume=34|issue=2|year=1992|last1=Abrahamsen|first1=N.}}</ref>

=== Mining ===
The use of a compass as a direction finder underground was pioneered in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] mining town [[Massa, Tuscany|Massa]] where floating magnetic needles were employed for tunneling, and for defining the claims of the various mining companies, as early as the 13th century.<ref>Ludwig and Schmidtchen, p. 62–64</ref> In the second half of the 15th century, the compass became standard equipment for [[German Tyrol|Tyrolian]] miners. Shortly afterward the first detailed treatise dealing with the underground use of compasses was published by a [[Germany|German]] miner [[Rülein von Calw]] (1463–1525).<ref>Ludwig and Schmidtchen, p. 64</ref>

=== Sun compass ===
{{See also|Cardinal direction#Watch face|Sundial#Using a sundial as a compass}}
A sun compass uses the position of the Sun in the sky to determine the directions of the cardinal points, making allowance for the local latitude and longitude, time of day, [[equation of time]], and so on. At fairly high latitudes, an analog-display [[watch]] can be used as a very approximate sun compass. A simple sundial can be used as a much better one. An automatic sun compass developed by Lt. Col. [[James Allason]], a mechanized cavalry officer, was adopted by the British Army in India in 1938 for use in tanks and other armored vehicles where the magnetic field was subject to distortion, affecting the standard-issue prismatic compass. Cloudy skies prohibited its use in European theatres. A copy of the manual is preserved in the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London.<ref>Ringside Seat, by James Allison, Timewell Press, London 2007</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Admiralty, Great Britain (1915) ''Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914'', Chapter XXV: "The Magnetic Compass (continued): the analysis and correction of the deviation", London: HMSO, 525 p.
* [[Amir Aczel|Aczel, Amir D.]] (2001) ''The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention that Changed the World'', 1st Ed., New York: Harcourt, {{ISBN|0-15-600753-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carlson | first1 = John B | year = 1975 | title = Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico | journal = Science | volume = 189 | issue = 4205| pages = 753–760 | doi = 10.1126/science.189.4205.753 | pmid = 17777565 | bibcode = 1975Sci...189..753C | s2cid = 33186517 }}
* [[Frances Gies and Joseph Gies|Gies, Frances and Gies, Joseph]] (1994) ''Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Age'', New York: HarperCollins, {{ISBN|0-06-016590-1}}
* Gubbins, David, ''Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism'', Springer Press (2007), {{ISBN|1-4020-3992-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4020-3992-8}}
* Gurney, Alan (2004) ''Compass: A Story of Exploration and Innovation'', London : Norton, {{ISBN|0-393-32713-2}}
* Johnson, G. Mark, ''The Ultimate Desert Handbook'', 1st Ed., Camden, Maine: McGraw-Hill (2003), {{ISBN|0-07-139303-X}}
* {{cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–555 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 }}
* Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass", ''Technology and Culture'', '''14''' (3: July), p.&nbsp;367–383 {{JSTOR|3102323}}
* Lane, Frederic C. (1963) "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass", ''The American Historical Review'', '''68''' (3: April), p.&nbsp;605–617 {{JSTOR|1847032}}
* Li Shu-hua (1954) "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", ''Isis'', '''45''' (2: July), p.&nbsp;175–196
* Ludwig, Karl-Heinz and Schmidtchen, Volker (1997) ''Metalle und Macht: 1000 bis 1600'', Propyläen Technikgeschichte, Berlin: Propyläen Verlag, {{ISBN|3-549-05633-8}}
* Ma, Huan (1997) ''Ying-Yai sheng-lan'' [The overall survey of the ocean's shores (1433)], Feng, Ch'eng-chün (ed.) and Mills, J.V.G. (transl.), Bangkok: White Lotus Press, {{ISBN|974-8496-78-3}}
* Needham, Joseph (1986) ''Science and civilization in China'', Vol. 4: "Physics and physical technology", Pt. 1: "Physics", Taipei: Caves Books, originally publ. by Cambridge University Press (1962), {{ISBN|0-521-05802-3}}
* Needham, Joseph and Ronan, Colin A. (1986) ''The shorter Science and civilization in China: an abridgment of Joseph Needham's original text'', Vol. 3, Chapter 1: "Magnetism and Electricity", Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-25272-5}}
* Seidman, David, and Cleveland, Paul, ''The Essential Wilderness Navigator'', Ragged Mountain Press (2001), {{ISBN|0-07-136110-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = E.G.R. | year = 1951 | title = The South-Pointing Needle | journal = Imago Mundi | volume = 8 | pages = 1–7 | doi=10.1080/03085695108591973}}
* Williams, J.E.D. (1992) ''From Sails to Satellites: the origin and development of navigational science'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-856387-6}}
* Wright, Monte Duane (1972) ''Most Probable Position: A History of Aerial Navigation to 1941'', The University Press of Kansas, {{LCCN|72079318}}
* Zhou, Daguan (2007) ''The customs of Cambodia'', translated into English from the French version by Paul Pelliot of Zhou's Chinese original by J. Gilman d'Arcy Paul, Phnom Penh: Indochina Books, prev publ. by Bangkok : Siam Society (1993), {{ISBN|974-8298-25-6}}

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[[Category:History of navigation]]
[[Category:Orientation (geometry)]]