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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
[[File:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg|thumb|300px|This page (folio 292r) of the [[Book of Kells]] contains the lavishly decorated text that opens the [[Gospel of John]].]]
[[File:DurhamCassiodorusDavidVictor.JPG|thumb|[[David]] from the [[Durham Cassiodorus]], early 8th century
'''Insular art''', also known as '''Hiberno-Saxon art''', was produced in the [[sub-Roman Britain|post-Roman era]] of
Most Insular art originates from the [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish monastic]] movement of [[Celtic Christianity]], or metalwork for the secular elite, and the period begins around 600 with the combining of [[Celtic art|Celtic]] and [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] styles. One major distinctive feature is [[interlace (art)|interlace]] decoration, in particular the [[interlace (visual arts)|interlace]] decoration as found at [[Sutton Hoo]], in [[East Anglia]]. This is now applied to decorating new types of objects mostly copied from the Mediterranean world, above all the [[codex]] or book.<ref>No manuscripts are commonly dated before 600, but some jewellery, mostly Irish, is dated to the 6th century. Youngs 20–22. The early history of Anglo-Saxon metalwork is dominated by the early-7th-century finds at [[Sutton Hoo]], but it is clear these were the product of a well-established tradition of which only smaller pieces survive. Wilson, 16–27. The earliest Pictish stones may date from the fifth century however. Laing, 55–56.</ref>
The finest period of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life caused by the [[Viking expansion|Viking raids]] which began in the late 8th century. These are presumed to have interrupted work on the [[Book of Kells]]
Surviving examples of Insular art are mainly [[illuminated manuscript]]s, metalwork and carvings in stone, especially [[High cross|stone crosses]]. Surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning, with no attempt to give an impression of depth, volume or recession. The best examples include the [[Book of Kells]], [[Lindisfarne Gospels]], [[Book of Durrow]], brooches such as the [[Tara Brooch]] and the [[Ruthwell Cross]]. [[Carpet pages]] are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts, although [[historiated initial]]s (an Insular invention), [[canon table]]s and figurative miniatures, especially [[Evangelist portrait]]s, are also common.
==
The
Some sources distinguish between a "wider period between the 5th and 11th centuries, from the departure of the Romans to the beginnings of the Romanesque style" and a "more specific phase from the 6th to 9th centuries, between the conversion to Christianity and the Viking settlements".<ref>Hicks</ref> [[C. R. Dodwell]], on the other hand, says that in Ireland "the Insular style continued almost unchallenged until the [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Anglo-Norman invasion of 1170]]; indeed examples of it occur even as late as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries".<ref>Dodwell (1993), 90.</ref>
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==Insular decoration==
[[File:KellsDecoratedInitial.jpg|thumb|right|One of hundreds of small initials from the ''Book of Kells'']]
The Insular style is most famous for its highly dense, intricate and imaginative decoration, which takes elements from several earlier styles. Late [[Iron Age]] Celtic art or "Ultimate [[La Tène style|La Tène]]", gave the love of spirals, [[triskele]]s, circles and other geometric motifs. These were combined with animal forms probably mainly deriving from the Germanic version of the general [[Eurasia]]n [[animal style]], though also from Celtic art, where heads terminating scrolls were common. [[Interlace (visual arts)|Interlace]] was used by both these traditions, as well as Roman art (for example in floor [[mosaic]]s) and other possible influences such as [[Coptic art]], and its use was taken to new levels in
There is no attempt to represent depth in manuscript painting, with all the emphasis on a brilliantly patterned surface. In early works the human figure was shown in the same geometric fashion as animal figures, but reflections of a classical figure style spread as the period went on, probably mostly from the southern Anglo-Saxon regions, though northern areas also had direct contacts with the Continent.<ref>Grove, Wilson, 38–40, Nordenfalk, 13–26, Calkins Chapter 1, Laing 346–351</ref> The origins of the overall format of the carpet page have often been related to Roman floor mosaics,<ref>Henderson, 97–100</ref> Coptic carpets and manuscript paintings,<ref>Nordenfalk, 19–22, Schapiro, 205–206</ref> without general agreement being reached among scholars.
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[[File:Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg|thumb|Early Anglo-Saxon shoulder-clasps from [[Sutton Hoo]], early 7th century. Gold, garnet, and [[millefiori]] glass.]]
[[File:Saint Manchan’s Shrine front plate.jpg|thumb|Front plate of the 12th century [[Saint Manchan's Shrine]]]]
Unlike contemporary [[Byzantine art]], and that of most major periods,
Especially in Ireland, the clerical and secular elites were often very closely linked; some Irish [[Abbot|abbacies]] were held for generations among a small kin-group.<ref>Youngs, 13–14</ref> Ireland was divided into very small "kingdoms", almost too many for historians to keep track of, whilst in Britain there was a smaller number of generally larger kingdoms. Both the Celtic (Irish and [[Pict]]ish) and Anglo-Saxon elites had long traditions of metalwork of the finest quality, much of it used for the personal adornment of both sexes of the elite. The Insular style arises from the meeting of their two styles, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon [[animal style]], in a Christian context, and with some awareness of Late Antique style. This was especially so in their application to the book, which was a new type of object for both traditions, as well as to metalwork.<ref>Youngs, 15–16, 72; Nordenfalk, 7–11, Pächt, 65–66</ref>
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==Insular metalwork==
[[File:NMSHunterstonBrooch1 (cropped).jpg|alt=Hunterston Brooch front view|thumb|upright=1.0|The [[Hunterston Brooch]], Irish c. 700, is cast in silver, mounted with gold, silver and amber decoration.]]
Christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so that, at least from the Anglo-Saxons, we have a larger number of pre-Christian survivals than those from later periods.<ref>Dodwell (1982), 4</ref> The majority of examples that survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden, lost or abandoned. There are a few exceptions, notably arm-shaped reliquaries such as the [[Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm]],<ref name="m139">Mitchell (1984), p. 139</ref> and portable book-shaped ("[[cumdach]]s") and [[House-shaped shrine|house-shaped]]<ref name="m286">Moss (2014), 286</ref> [[shrine]]s for books or [[relic]]s, several of which have been continuously owned, mostly by churches on the Continent—though the [[Monymusk Reliquary]] has always been in Scotland.<ref>Youngs, 134–140 catalogues two examples from Italy and one from Norway. See also Laing, who describes major pieces by period and area at various points.</ref>
In general it is clear that most survivals are only by chance, and that we have only fragments of some types of object—in particular the largest and least portable. The highest quality survivals are either secular jewellery, the largest and most elaborate pieces probably for male wearers, or tableware or altarware in what were apparently very similar styles—some pieces cannot be confidently assigned between altar and royal dining-table. It seems possible, even likely, that the finest church pieces were made by secular workshops, often attached to a royal household, though other pieces were made by monastic workshops.<ref>Youngs, 15–16, 125</ref> The evidence suggests that Irish metalworkers produced most of the best pieces,<ref>Youngs, 53</ref> however the finds from the royal burial at [[Sutton Hoo]], from the far east of England and at the beginning of the period, are as fine in design and workmanship as any Irish pieces.<ref>Wilson, 16–25</ref> Even excepting the
There are a number of large [[penannular brooch]]es, including several of comparable quality to the [[Tara brooch]]. Almost all of these are in the [[British Museum]], the [[National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology|National Museum of Ireland]], the [[National Museum of Scotland]], or local museums in the islands. Each of their designs is wholly individual in detail, and the workmanship is varied in technique and superb in quality. Many elements of the designs can be directly related to elements used in manuscripts. Almost all of the many techniques known in metalwork can be found in Insular work. Surviving stones used in decoration are semi-precious ones, with [[amber]] and [[rock crystal]] among the commonest, and some [[garnet]]s. Coloured glass, [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] and [[millefiori]] glass, probably imported, are also used, as seen in the late 6th century [[Ballinderry Brooch]].<ref>Youngs, 72–115, and 170–174 on techniques; Ryan, Michael in [[Oxford Art Online]], S2, Wilson, 113–114, 120–130</ref>
The [[gilt-bronze]] [[Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque]] (NMI, late 7th or early 8th century) is the best known of a group of nine recorded Irish metal
[[File:Ardagh chalice.jpg|thumb|The [[Ardagh Chalice]], c.? 750]]
The Ardagh Chalice and the [[Derrynaflan Chalice|Derrynaflan]] Hoard of chalice, [[paten]] with stand, strainer, and basin (only discovered in 1980) are the most outstanding pieces of church metalware to survive (only three other chalices, and no other paten, survive). These pieces are thought to come from the 8th or 9th century, but most dating of metalwork is uncertain, and comes largely from comparison with manuscripts. Only fragments remain from what were probably large pieces of church furniture, probably with metalwork on wooden frameworks, such as shrines, crosses and other items.<ref>Youngs, 125–130, and catalogue entries following, including the Derrynaflan Hoard.</ref> The [[Insular crozier]] had a distinctive shape; the survivals, such
The [[Cross of Cong]] is a 12th-century Irish processional cross and [[reliquary]] that shows
The fittings of a major abbey church in the
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px" perrow="4">
File:Ireland 2010 etc 028 (2).jpg|The [[Tara Brooch]], c. 710 to 750 AD
File:
File:NMSMonymuskReliquary1.jpg|[[Monymusk Reliquary]], 8th century
File:Derrynaflan chalice.jpg|The [[Derrynaflan Chalice]], 8th or 9th century
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'''[[Cathach of St. Columba]]'''.
An Irish Latin [[psalter]] of the early 7th century,<ref>Or "the second half of the sixth century" according to Schapiro, 229. Calkins, 31–32 gives no date, Nordenfalk, 12–13 says 7th century.</ref> this is perhaps the oldest known Irish manuscript of any sort. It contains only decorated letters, at the beginning of each Psalm, but these already show distinctive traits. Not just the initial, but the first few letters are decorated, at diminishing sizes. The decoration influences the shape of the letters, and various decorative forms are mixed in a very unclassical way. Lines are already inclined to spiral and metamorphose, as in the example shown. Apart from black, some orange ink is used for dotted decoration. The classical tradition was late to use capital letters for initials at all (in Roman texts it is often very hard to even separate the words), and though by this time they were in common use in Italy, they were often set in the left margin, as though to cut them off from the rest of the text. The
[[File:BookOfDurrowBeginMarkGospel.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The beginning of the Gospel of Mark from the Book of Durrow.]]
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===Other books===
[[File:BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|St John from the Book of Mulling]]
A distinctive Insular type of book is the '''pocket gospel book''', inevitably much less decorated, but in several cases with Evangelist portraits and other decoration. Examples include the [[Book of Mulling]], [[Book of Deer]], [[Book of Dimma]], and the smallest of all, the [[Stonyhurst Gospel]] (now [[British Library]]), a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon text of the Gospel of John, which belonged to [[St Cuthbert]] and was buried with him. Its beautifully tooled goatskin cover is the oldest Western bookbinding to survive, and a virtually unique example of
Both Anglo-Saxon and Irish manuscripts have a distinctive rougher finish to their vellum, compared to the smooth-polished surface of contemporary continental and all late-medieval vellum.<ref>Wilson, 32</ref> It appears that, in contrast to later periods, the scribes copying the text were often also the artists of the illuminations, and might include the most senior figures of their monastery.<ref>Alexander, 9 and 72. The tradition that St [[Cuthbert]] copied the Stonyhurst Gospel himself may be correct, though that attributing the Book of Kells to St [[Columba]] himself seems impossible. For other high-ranking Anglo-Saxon monastic artists see [[Eadfrith of Lindisfarne]], [[Spearhafoc]] and [[Dunstan]], all bishops.</ref>
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{{main|Anglo-Saxon art}}
In England the pull of a Continental style operated from very early on; the [[Gregorian mission]] from Rome had brought the [[St Augustine Gospels]] and other manuscripts now lost with them, and other books were imported from the continent early on. The 8th-century [[Bede, Ecclesiastical History (British Library, MS Cotton Tiberius C. II)|Cotton Bede]] shows mixed elements in the decoration, as does the [[Stockholm Codex Aureus]] of similar period, probably written in [[Canterbury]].<ref>Nordenfalk, 96–107</ref> In the [[Vespasian Psalter]] it is clear which element is coming to dominate. All these and other members of the "Tiberius" group of manuscripts were written south of the river [[Humber]],<ref>Wilson, 91–94</ref> but the [[Codex Amiatinus]], of before 716 from Jarrow, is written in a fine [[uncial]] script, and its only illustration is conceived in an Italianate style, with no
Many Anglo-Saxon manuscripts written in the south, and later the north, of England show strong Insular influences until the 10th century or beyond, but the pre-dominant stylistic impulse comes from the continent of Europe; carpet-pages are not found, but many large figurative miniatures are. Panels of interlace and other Insular motifs continue to be used as one element in borders and frames ultimately classical in derivation. Many continental manuscripts, especially in areas influenced by the Celtic missions, also show such features well into the early Romanesque period. "Franco-Saxon" is a term for a school of late Carolingian illumination in north-eastern France that used
[[File:Meister der Franko-Sächsischen Gruppe 001.jpg|thumb|upright|9th-century [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] Franco-Saxon ''Incipit'' initial combines Insular decoration with classicising [[Evangelist portrait]]s.]]▼
The true legacy of insular art lies not so much in the specific stylistic features discussed above, but in its fundamental departure from the classical approach to decoration, whether of books or other works of art. The barely controllable energy of Insular decoration, spiralling across formal partitions, becomes a feature of later medieval art, especially Gothic art, in areas where specific Insular motifs are hardly used, such as architecture. The mixing of the figurative with the ornamental also remained characteristic of all later medieval illumination; indeed for the complexity and density of the mixture, Insular manuscripts are only rivalled by some 15th-century works of late Flemish illumination. It is also noticeable that these characteristics are always rather more pronounced in the north of Europe than the south; Italian art, even in the Gothic period, always retains a certain classical clarity in form.<ref>Henderson, 63–71; A major theme of Pächt, see in particular chapter II and pp. 173–177</ref>▼
Unmistakable Insular influence can be seen in [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] manuscripts, even though these were also trying to copy the Imperial styles of Rome and Byzantium. Greatly enlarged initials, sometimes inhabited, were retained, as well as far more abstract decoration than found in classical models. These features continue in [[Ottonian]] and contemporary French illumination and metalwork, before the Romanesque period further removed classical restraints, especially in manuscripts, and the capitals of columns.<ref>Pächt, 72–73, and Henderson 63–71</ref>▼
==Sculpture==
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[[File:Muiredach s Cross.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Muiredach's High Cross, Monasterboice]]
Large stone [[high cross]]es, usually erected outside monasteries or churches, first appear in the 8th century in Ireland,<ref>[[Grove Art Online]] S4</ref> perhaps
Later
The 8th-century [[Northumbria]]n [[Ruthwell Cross]], unfortunately damaged by [[Presbyterian]] [[iconoclasm]], is the most impressive remaining [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] cross, though as with most Anglo-Saxon crosses the original cross head is missing. Many Anglo-Saxon crosses were much smaller and more slender than the Irish ones, and therefore only had room for carved foliage, but the [[Bewcastle Cross]], [[Easby Cross]] and [[Sandbach Crosses]] are other survivals with considerable areas of figurative [[relief]]s, with larger-scale figures than any early Irish examples. Even early Anglo-Saxon examples mix vine-scroll decoration of Continental origin with interlace panels, and in later ones the former type becomes the norm, just as in manuscripts. There is literary evidence for considerable numbers of carved stone crosses across the whole of England, and also straight shafts, often as grave-markers, but most survivals are in the northernmost counties. There are remains of other works of [[monumental sculpture]] in Anglo-Saxon art, even from the earlier periods, but nothing comparable from Ireland.<ref>Wilson deals extensively with the sculptural remains, 74–84 for the 8th century, 105–108, 141–152, 195–210 for later periods.</ref>
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==Pictish standing stones==
{{main|Pictish stones}}
The stone monuments erected by the [[Picts]] of [[Scotland]] north of the Clyde-Forth line between the 6th–8th centuries are particularly striking in design and construction, carved in the typical [[Easter Ross]] style related to that of
|last = Forsyth
|first = Katherine
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}}</ref>
There are also a few examples of similar decoration on Pictish silver jewellery, notably the Norrie's Law Hoard, of the 7th century or perhaps earlier, much of which was melted down on discovery,<ref>Youngs, 26–27</ref> and the 8th-century [[St Ninian's Isle]] Hoard, with many brooches and bowls.<ref>Wilson, 117–118; Youngs, 108–112, see also [http://photos.shetland-museum.org.uk/index.php?a=subjects&s=gallery&key=SYToyOntpOjA7aTozMTg7aToxO3M6MTY6IlN0IE5pbmlhbidzIElzbGUiO30= Shetland museum images] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727053200/http://photos.shetland-museum.org.uk/index.php?a=subjects&s=gallery&key=SYToyOntpOjA7aTozMTg7aToxO3M6MTY6IlN0IE5pbmlhbidzIElzbGUiO30%3D |date=27 July 2011 }}</ref> The surviving items from both are now held by the [[National
==Legacy==
▲[[File:Meister der Franko-Sächsischen Gruppe 001.jpg|thumb|upright|9th-century [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] Franco-Saxon ''Incipit'' initial combines Insular decoration with classicising [[Evangelist portrait]]s.]]
▲The true legacy of
▲Unmistakable Insular influence can be seen in [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] manuscripts, even though these were also trying to copy the Imperial styles of Rome and Byzantium. Greatly enlarged initials, sometimes inhabited, were retained, as well as far more abstract decoration than found in classical models. These features continue in [[Ottonian]] and contemporary French illumination and metalwork, before the Romanesque period further removed classical restraints, especially in manuscripts, and the capitals of columns.<ref>Pächt, 72–73, and Henderson 63–71</ref>
==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|2}}
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* Alexander, Jonathan J.G.. ''Medieval Illuminators and their Methods of Work'', Yale UP, 1992, {{ISBN|978-0-300-05689-1}}
* Bloxham, Jim & Rose, Krisine. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110726074901/http://www.gbwny.org/news/2007/11/st-cuthbert-gospel-of-st-john-formerly-known-as-the-stonyhurst-gospel/ ''St. Cuthbert Gospel of St. John, Formerly Known as the Stonyhurst Gospel'']
* Brown, Michelle P. [https://books.google.com/books?id=H8Ke9acHFm4C
* Calkins, Robert G. ''Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages''. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983, {{ISBN|978-0-8014-1506-7}}
* Dodwell, C.R. (1982). ''Anglo-Saxon Art, a new perspective'', 1982, Manchester UP, {{ISBN|978-0-7190-0926-6}}
* Dodwell, C.R. (1993). ''The Pictorial arts of the West, 800–1200'', 1993, Yale UP, {{ISBN|978-0-300-06493-3}}
* [[Ernst Gombrich|Gombrich, E.H.]]
* [[Raghnall Ó Floinn|Ó Floinn, Raghnal]]; Wallace, Patrick (eds). ''Treasures of the National Museum of Ireland: Irish Antiquities''. Dublin: [[National Museum of Ireland]], 2002. {{isbn|978-0-7171-2829-7}}
* Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012). ''Pages from the Book of Kells''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B00AN4JVI0
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* Henderson, George. ''Early Medieval Art'', 1972, {{ISBN|978-0-14-021420-8}}, rev. 1977, Penguin,
* "Hendersons": Henderson, George and Henderson, Isabel, [https://finds.org.uk/staffshoardsymposium/papers/georgeandisabelhenderson "The implications of the Staffordshire Hoard for the understanding of the origins and development of the Insular art style as it appears in manuscripts and sculpture"], ''Papers from the Staffordshire Hoard Symposium'' (online), 2010, [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]], [[British Museum]]
* [[Carola Hicks|Hicks, Carola]].
* [[Hugh Honour]] and John Fleming. "A World History of Art", 1st edn. 1982 & later editions, Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. {{ISBN|978-0-333-37185-5}}
* Laing, Lloyd Robert. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mdwOAAAAQAAJ
* Lasko, Peter. ''Ars Sacra, 800–1200'', Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 1972 (nb, 1st edn.) {{ISBN|978-0-14-056036-7}}
* [[Rachel Moss (art historian)|Moss, Rachel]]. ''Medieval c. 400—c. 1600'', "Art and Architecture of Ireland" series. CT: Yale University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-03-001-7919-4}}
* [[George Francis Mitchell|Mitchell, G. F.]]
* Moss, Rachel. ''The Book of Durrow''. Dublin: Trinity College Library; London: Thames and Hudson, 2018. {{isbn|978-0-5002-9460-4}}
* [[Griffin Murray|Murray, Griffin]]. "[https://www.academia.edu/4638094/The_Makers_of_Church_Metalwork_in_Early_Medieval_Ireland_Their_Identity_and_Status The Makers of Church Metalwork in Early Medieval Ireland: Their Identity and Status]". ''Making Histories: Proceedings of the Sixth International Insular Art Conference''. York, 2011
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* Nordenfalk, Carl. ''Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800''. New York: George Braziller, 1976, {{ISBN|978-0-8076-0825-8}}
* Pächt, Otto. ''Book Illumination in the Middle Ages'' (trans fr German), 1986, Harvey Miller Publishers, London, {{ISBN|978-0-19-921060-2}}
* Rigby, Stephen Henry. ''A companion to Britain in the later Middle Ages'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-631-21785-5}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=H4gfZGPDuu8C
* Ryan, Michael, and others, in [[Grove Art Online]], ''Insular art'' (Ryan is also a major contributor to Youngs below)
* [[Meyer Schapiro|Schapiro, Meyer]], ''Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art'', 1980, Chatto & Windus, London, {{ISBN|978-0-7011-2514-1}}
* Wailes, Bernard and Zoll, Amy L., in Philip L. Kohl, Clare P. Fawcett, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2GZ1mx397g4C&
* [[David M. Wilson|Wilson, David M.]]
* Susan Youngs (ed.). ''"The Work of Angels", Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD'', 1989, British Museum Press, London, {{ISBN|978-0-7141-0554-3}}
{{refend}}
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* [http://digitalcollections.tcd.ie/home/#folder_id=14&pidtopage=MS58_001r&entry_point=1 ''Book of Kells '' - images of manuscript]
* [http://digitalcollections.tcd.ie/home/index.php?folder_id=1648&pidtopage=MS60_001&entry_point=1 ''Book of Mulling '' - images of manuscript]
* [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/lindisfarne.html "Lindisfarne Gospels" - images from the British Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717174134/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/lindisfarne.html |date=17 July 2018 }}
* [http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/brooches/index.html ''Irish Brooches of the Early Medieval Celtic Period '' - exhibition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423200154/http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/brooches/index.html |date=23 April 2016 }}
* [http://lichfield.ou.edu ''Lichfield Gospels '' - instructive Features page for the manuscript; interactive 3D renderings; interactive Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) for viewing dry-point; overlaid historical images (going back 125 years) to examine how the manuscript is aging]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebr0HNnNNrs 3D for Presenting Insular Manuscripts ]- Explains 3D modeling for the 8th-century illuminated St Chad Gospels
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[[Category:Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts]]
[[Category:Medieval art]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Ireland]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Wales]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]
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