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{{Feminism sidebar |history}}
▲Whereas [[first-wave feminism]] focused mainly on [[Women's suffrage|suffrage]] and overturning legal obstacles to [[gender equality]] (''e.g.'', [[Women's suffrage|voting rights]] and [[property rights]]), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to include a wider range of issues: sexuality, family, domesticity, the workplace, [[reproductive rights]], ''de facto'' inequalities, and official legal inequalities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647122/womens-movement |title=women's movement (political and social movement) |website=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=July 20, 2012}}</ref> It was a movement that was focused on critiquing patriarchal, or male-dominated, institutions and cultural practices throughout society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pierceson, Jason, 1972-|title=Sexual minorities and politics : an introduction|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4422-2768-2|location=Lanham, Maryland|oclc=913610005}}</ref> Second-wave feminism also drew attention to the issues of [[domestic violence]] and [[marital rape]], created [[Rape crisis center]]s and [[women's shelter]]s, and brought about changes in custody laws and divorce law. Feminist-owned [[Feminist bookstore|bookstores]], credit unions, and restaurants were among the key meeting spaces and economic engines of the movement.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UjEtDwAAQBAJ&q=head+shops&pg=PT146|title=From Head Shops to Whole Foods: The Rise and Fall of Activist Entrepreneurs|last=Davis|first=Joshua Clark|date=August 8, 2017|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231543088|pages=129–175}}</ref>
The second wave ignored women's differences. Although they were all women grappling with the issue of sexism in a patriarchal society, feminism in some tropical countries is still very underdeveloped due to the different experiences of sexism encountered by women of different regional races.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Susan Archer |last2=Huffman |first2=Douglas J. |date=2005 |title=The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40404229 |journal=Science & Society |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=56–91 |doi=10.1521/siso.69.1.56.56799 |issn=0036-8237 |jstor=40404229}}</ref> Writers like [[Audre Lorde]] think critically and try to homogenize "sisterhood" while ignoring all factors of one's identity such as race, sexuality, age, and class.<ref>Lorde, Audre. 2000. "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Women." Pp. 288-293 in Wendy Komar and Frances Bartkowski, eds., Feminist Theory: A Reader. Mountain View, California: Mayfield.</ref> The term "[[intersectionality]]" was not coined until 1989 by [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]] at the end of the second wave. At the same time, many scholars believe that the beginning of [[Third-wave feminism|third wave feminism]] was due to the problems of the second wave, rather than just another movement.<ref name=":5" />
▲Missing from the typical narrative told about second-wave feminism is the experiences of black and other women of color as well as working-class women as some narratives focus on the sexism encountered by white middle- and upper-class women. Some narratives present a viewpoint focusing on events in the United States to the exclusion of experiences in other countries and neglect the works of white anti-racist feminism. While the term "[[intersectionality]]" was not coined until 1989 by [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]] after the end of the second wave, women of color were writing and creating feminist political activist groups throughout the entire movement, particularly in the 1970s.<ref>{{Citation |last=Thompson |first=Becky |title=2. Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism |date=2019-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.36019/9780813549170-004 |work=No Permanent Waves |pages=39–60 |access-date=2023-05-18 |publisher=Rutgers University Press|doi=10.36019/9780813549170-004 |isbn=9780813549170 |s2cid=243515689 }}</ref>
The concept of difference is something that was explored towards the end of the second wave of feminism since the voices of white feminists had dominated the narrative since early on in the movement. The ideals of [[Liberal feminism]] worked towards the idea of women’s equality with that of men because liberal feminists felt that women and men have the same intrinsic capabilities and that society has socialized certain skills out.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Judith |title=Feminist Theory Today: An Introduction to Second-Wave Feminism |publisher=Sage Publications |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8039-8478-3 |location=London |pages=13 |language=English}}</ref> This elimination of difference works to erase sexism by working within a pre-existing system of oppression rather than challenging the system itself. Working towards equality preserves a system by giving everyone the same opportunities regardless of their privilege whereas the framework of equity would address problems in society and find solutions to target the problem at hand.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Juda |first=Edyta |date=2020-11-05 |title=Equity vs. Equality: What's the Difference? |url=https://onlinepublichealth.gwu.edu/resources/equity-vs-equality/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=GW-UMT |language=en-US}}</ref> ▼
The term "second-wave feminism" itself was brought into common parlance by American journalist Martha Lear in a March 1968 ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' article titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What do These Women Want?".<ref name="lear">{{Cite news|url=https://nyti.ms/2h6kh3X|title=The Second Feminist Wave: What do these women want?|last=Lear|first=Martha Weinman|date=March 10, 1968|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-06-25|language=en}}</ref> She wrote, "Proponents call it the Second Feminist Wave, the first having ebbed after the glorious victory of [[Women's suffrage in the United States|suffrage]] and disappeared, finally, into the great sandbar of Togetherness."<ref name="lear" />{{rp|323}} The term ''wave'' helped link the generation of suffragettes who fought for legal rights to the feminists of the 1960s and '70s. It is now used to not only distinguish the different priorities in feminism throughout the years but to establish an overarching fight for equity and equality as a way of understanding its history. This metaphor however is critiqued by feminists as it generalizes the contradictions within the movement and the different beliefs that feminists hold.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Grady |first=Constance |date=2018-03-20 |title=The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained |url=https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> Many scholars believe that the start of [[Third-wave feminism|third wave feminism]] was in due to the problems of the second wave rather than just another movement.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Susan Archer |last2=Huffman |first2=Douglas J. |date=2005 |title=The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40404229 |journal=Science & Society |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=56–91 |doi=10.1521/siso.69.1.56.56799 |jstor=40404229 |issn=0036-8237}}</ref>▼
▲In the United States, second-wave feminism ended in the early 1980s with the [[feminist sex wars]]<ref name=Douglas>{{cite book |title=Love and Politics: Radical Feminist and Lesbian Theories |last=Douglas |first=Carol Anne |publisher=ISM PRESS |date=July 1990 |location=San Francisco, CA, USA |isbn=9780910383172}}</ref> and was succeeded by [[third-wave feminism]] in the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilmore |first=Stephanie |date=2004 |title=No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women, and: Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century's End, and: Feminism in the Heartland (review) |journal=NWSA Journal |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=190–196 |doi=10.1353/nwsa.2004.0054 |s2cid=144734371 |issn=1527-1889}}</ref>
==Overview in the United States==
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{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage=[[File:Eleanor Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy (President's Commission on the Status of Women) - NARA cropped.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_285B9C3362534FFF8494B95922E3240B Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt; What Status For Women?], 59:07, 1962.<br />[[Eleanor Roosevelt]], chair of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, interviews President [[John F. Kennedy]], Secretary of Labor [[Arthur Goldberg]] and others, [[WGBH Educational Foundation|Open Vault from WGBH]]<ref name="wgbhov">{{cite web | title =Prospects of Mankind with Eleanor Roosevelt; What Status For Women? | work = [[National Educational Television]] | publisher =[[WGBH Educational Foundation|Open Vault at WGBH]] | date =1962 | url =http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_285B9C3362534FFF8494B95922E3240B | access-date =September 19, 2016}}</ref>}}
The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the [[New Frontier]], and named women (such as [[Esther Peterson]]) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aflcio.org/aboutus/history/history/peterson.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927032402/http://www.aflcio.org/aboutus/history/history/peterson.cfm |archive-date=September 27, 2011 |title=Esther Eggertsen Peterson (1906–1997) |website=AFL-CIO}}</ref> Kennedy also established a [[Presidential Commission on the Status of Women]], chaired by [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Robert F. Kennedy]]), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://womenshistory.about.com/od/laws/a/status_women.htm |title=President's Commission on the Status of Women 1961–1963 |publisher=Womenshistory.about.com |date=December 14, 1961 |access-date=July 20, 2012 |archive-date=March 29, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329084227/http://womenshistory.about.com/od/laws/a/status_women.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The report recommended changing this inequality by providing paid maternity leave, greater access to education, and help with child care to women.<ref name=":1" />
There were other actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, 50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by [[Women Strike for Peace]], protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-dagmar-wilson-20110130,0,5499397.story | work=Los Angeles Times | first=Elaine | last=Woo | title=Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters | date=January 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Laurie Ouellette |title=Inventing the Cosmo Girl: class identity and girl-style American dreams |journal=Media, Culture & Society |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=359–383 |publisher=Mcs.sagepub.com |date=May 1, 1999 |doi=10.1177/016344399021003004 |s2cid=143024139}}</ref>
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In 1963, Betty Friedan, influenced by Simone de Beauvoir's ground-breaking, feminist ''The Second Sex'', wrote the bestselling book ''The Feminine Mystique''. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home (as 'housewives') limited their possibilities and wasted potential. She had helped conduct a very important survey using her old classmates from [[Smith College]]. This survey revealed that the women who work in the workforce while also playing a role in the home were more satisfied with their life compared with the women who stayed home. The women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these unhappy women had immersed themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |title=The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present |last=Hunt |first=Michael |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937102-0 |location=New York |pages=220, 221}}</ref> Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name".<ref>DuBois and Dumenil. ''Through Women's Eyes: An American History Since 1865''. (Bedford; St Martin's, New York)</ref> The perfect [[nuclear family]] image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=Cynthia Fuchs |date=1988 |title=Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order |location=New Haven |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}</ref> This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/betty-friedan-465800.html |location=London |work=[[The Independent]] |first=Corinne |last=Sweet |title=Betty Friedan |date=February 7, 2006}}</ref> The problems of the nuclear family in America are also heteronormative and is utilized often as a marketing strategy to sell goods within a capitalist driven society.<ref>Snider, Ashton R., "Heteronormativity and the Ideal Family" (2016). Theses. 220. https://irl.umsl.edu/thesis/220</ref>
The report from the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, along with Friedan's book, spoke to the discontent of many women (especially [[homemaker|housewives]]) and led to the formation of local, state, and federal government women's groups along with many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" as early as 1964.<ref>{{cite web |author=CBCtv |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iDZh3nY9clY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/iDZh3nY9clY |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live |title=Betty Friedan: Women | date=February 11, 2009 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=July 20, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
The movement grew with legal victories such as the [[Equal Pay Act of 1963]], [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]], and the ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president.<ref name=fredianfap>{{cite book|title=The Sixties Chronicle|first=David|last=Farber|publisher=Legacy Publishing|page=256|year=2004|isbn=978-1412710091}}</ref>
Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (EEOC) to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.<ref name="fredianfap"/> Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members,<ref name="fredianfap"/> many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=257}} Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.now.org/press/02-06/02-04.html|
In 1963, freelance journalist [[Gloria Steinem]] gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a [[Playboy Bunny]] waitress at the [[Playboy Club]] was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of ''[[Show (magazine)|Show]]''.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=150}} In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume".{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=150}} By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized [[abortion]] and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=377}}
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In 2013, the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] (DoD) announced their plan to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016.<ref name="ppippav">[http://www.infoplease.com/us/military/women-history.html A History of Women in the U.S. Military]. ''Infoplease.com''. Accessed December 28, 2013.</ref>
Second-wave feminism also affected other movements, such as the [[civil rights movement]] and the [[Student activism in the United States|student's rights movement]], as women sought equality within them. In 1965 in "Sex and Caste
In June 1967, [[Jo Freeman]] attended a "free school" course on women at the University of Chicago led by [[Heather Booth]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA004.htm|title=Feminism |website=Jewish Women's Archive}}</ref> and [[Naomi Weisstein]]. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming [[National Conference of New Politics]] (NCNP), to be held over [[Labor Day]] weekend 1967 in [[Chicago]]. At that conference, a woman's caucus was formed (led by Freeman and [[Shulamith Firestone]]), who tried to present their own demands to the plenary session.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhmQvhJMUagC&pg=PA61 |title=American Patriotism, American Protest: Social Movements Since the Sixties |first=Simon |last=Hall |year=2011 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |page=61 |isbn=978-0-8122-4295-9}}</ref> However, the women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed.<ref name="jofreeman.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.jofreeman.com/socialmovements/origins.htm |title=On the Origins of Social Movements |first=Jo |last=Freeman |year=1999}}</ref> When the National Conference for New Politics (NCNP) Director William F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]], five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium demanding to know why.<ref name="jofreeman.com"/> But Willam F. Pepper allegedly patted Firestone on the head and said, "Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than women's liberation", or possibly, "Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems."<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="jofreeman.com"/> Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the "free school" course and the women's workshop at the conference; this became the first Chicago [[Women's liberation movement|women's liberation]] group. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side. After a few months, Freeman started a newsletter which she called ''Voice of the women's liberation movement.'' It circulated all over the country (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of women's liberation its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the [[Chicago Women's Liberation Union]].
In 1968, an [[Students for a Democratic Society|SDS]] organizer at the [[University of Washington]] told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?{{'"}} (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, ''Rebirth of Feminism'', 1971, pg. 120).<ref name="jofreeman.com"/> After the meeting, a handful of women formed [[Seattle]]'s first women's liberation group.<ref name="jofreeman.com"/>
▲The term "second-wave feminism" itself was brought into common parlance by American journalist Martha Lear in a March 1968 ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' article titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What
Some black feminists who were active in the early second-wave feminism include civil rights lawyer and author [[Florynce Kennedy]], who co-authored one of the first books on abortion, 1971's ''Abortion Rap''; Cellestine Ware, of New York's [[Stanton-Anthony Brigade]]; and Patricia Robinson. These women "tried to show the connections between racism and male dominance" in society.
The Indochinese Women's Conferences (IWC) in Vancouver and Toronto in 1971, demonstrated the interest of a multitude of women's groups in the Vietnam Antiwar movement. Lesbian groups, women of color, and Vietnamese groups saw their interests mirrored in the anti-imperialist spirit of the conference. Although the IWC used a Canadian venue, membership was primarily composed of American groups.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hewitt |first=Nancy A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/642204450 |title=No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism |others=Nancy A. Hewitt |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8135-4917-0 |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |pages=191–216 |oclc=642204450}}</ref>
▲
The second wave of the feminist movement also marks the emergence of [[women's studies]] as a legitimate field of study. In 1970, [[San Diego State University]] was the first university in the United States to offer a selection of women's studies courses.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Women's voices, feminist visions: classic and contemporary readings |others=Shaw, Susan M. (Susan Maxine), 1960–, Lee, Janet, 1954– |isbn=9780078027000 |edition=Sixth |location=New York, NY |oclc=862041473 |last1=Shaw |first1=Susan |last2=Lee |first2=Janet |date=April 23, 2014}}</ref>
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*{{cite book |author=Vance, Carole S |title=Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality |year=1989 |publisher=Thorsons Publishers |isbn=978-0-04-440593-1}}</ref>
== "The
[[File:Betty Naomi Goldstein Friedan.jpg|thumb|109x109px|[[Betty Friedan]] published ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' in 1963]]
In 1963, [[Betty Friedan]] published her book ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]''<ref name="Friedan 20102">{{Cite book |last=Friedan |first=Betty |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/823862686 |title=The feminine mystique |date=2010 |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]] |isbn=978-0-14-119205-5 |oclc=823862686}}</ref> addressing the issues that many white-middle class housewives were facing at the time.
== Overview outside the United States ==
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=== Finland ===
In the 1960s, feminism again became a part of debate in Finland after the publication of [[Anna-Liisa Sysiharjun]]'s ''Home, Equality and Work'' (1960) and [[Elina Haavio-Mannila
In 1970 there was a brief but strong women's movement belonging to
=== Germany ===
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===Ireland===
The [[Irish Women's Liberation Movement]] was an alliance of a group of Irish women who were concerned about the sexism within Ireland both socially and legally. They first began after a meeting in [[Dublin|Dublin's]] Bewley's Cafe on [[Grafton Street]] in 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.tcd.ie/history/contesting/Undergrad/Module15/document6.pdf|title = Irish Women's Liberation Movement|publisher = Trinity College, Dublin}}</ref> They later had their meetings in [[Margaret Gaj]]'s restaurant on [[Baggot Street]] every Monday.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.independent.ie/world-news/the-matriarch-who-served-up-stew-and-social-progress-26747770.html|title = The Matriarch Who Served up Stew and Social Progress|last = Sweetman|first = Rosita|date = 7 February 2011|work = Independent|access-date = 21 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = The Liffey Press Mondays at Gaj's: The Story of the Irish Women's Liberation Movement|url = http://www.theliffeypress.com/mondays-at-gaj-s-the-story-of-the-irish-women-s-liberation-movement.html|website = The Liffey Press|access-date = 2015-08-21}}</ref> The group was short-lived, but influential.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nfh&AN=9FY2673767236&site=ehost-live|title = Celebrating Sisterhood|date = 26 May 2010|work = Irish Times|access-date = 21 August 2015|via = Newspaper Source - EBSCOhost}}</ref> It was initially started with twelve women, most of whom were [[journalist]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title = 1968: Memories and Legacies of a Global Revolt|last = McCafferty|first = Nell|pages = 216–218|url = http://www.ghi-dc.org/files/publications/bu_supp/supp006/bus6_213.pdf|chapter = Ireland: Breaking the Shackles|access-date = 21 August 2015|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022050/http://www.ghi-dc.org/files/publications/bu_supp/supp006/bus6_213.pdf|archive-date = 24 September 2015}}</ref> One of the co-founders was [[June Levine]].<ref>{{
In 1971, a group of Irish feminists (including [[June Levine]], [[Mary Kenny]], [[Nell McCafferty]], [[Máirín Johnston]], and other members of the [[Irish Women's Liberation Movement]]) travelled to [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]], on the so-called "[[Contraceptive Train]]" and returned with [[condom]]s, which were then illegal in Ireland.
In 1973, a group of feminists, chaired by [[Hilda Tweedy]] of the [[Irish Housewives Association]], set up the Council for the Status of Women, with the goal of gaining equality for women. It was an umbrella body for women's groups.<ref>[http://www.nwci.ie/about/history.html NWCI History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617212729/http://www.nwci.ie/about/history.html |date=June 17, 2013 }}</ref> During the 1990s the council's activities included supporting projects funded by the [[European Social Fund]], and running Women and Leadership Programmes and forums. In 1995, following a strategic review, it changed its name to the [[National Women's Council of Ireland]].
=== Spain ===
The 1960s in Spain saw a generational shift in Spanish feminist in response to other changes in Spanish society. This included increased emigration and tourism (resulting in the spread of ideas from the rest of the world), greater opportunities in education and employment for women and major economic reforms.<ref name=":6">Nielfa Cristóbal, Gloria. ''Movimientos femeninos'', en ''Enciclopedia Madrid S.XX''</ref> Feminism in the late Franco period and early transition period was not unified. It had many different political dimensions, however, they all shared a belief in the need for greater equality for women in Spain and a desire to defend the rights of women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elmundo.es/la-aventura-de-la-historia/2015/03/08/54faf788e2704ea15e8b4576.html |title=Y nos hicimos visibles |trans-title=And we became visible |date=March 8, 2015 |website=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]] |language=es |access-date=March 27, 2019}}</ref> Feminism moved from being about the individual to being about the collective.<ref name=":19">{{cite web |url=http://www.vocesvisibles.com/historia-del-feminismo/historia-del-feminismo-en-espana |title=Historia del Feminismo en España |language=es |trans-title=History of Feminism in Span |last=Seara |first=Marita |date=November 29, 2015 |website=Voces Visibles |access-date=March 30, 2019}}</ref> It was during this period that second-wave feminism arrived in Spain.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoHC6Oi-SGkC |title=Spanish Women's Writing 1849-1996 |last=Davies |first=Catherine |date=January 1, 1998 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9780485910063 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
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Second-wave Spanish feminism was about the struggle for the rights of women in the context of the dictatorship. PCE would start in 1965 to promote this movement with MDM, creating a feminist political orientation around building solidarity for women and assisting imprisoned political figures. MDM launched its movement in Madrid by establishing associations among the housewives of the [[Tetuán (Madrid)|Tetuán]] and [[Getafe]] in 1969. In 1972, Asociación Castellana de Amas de Casa y Consumidora was created to widen the group's ability to attract members.<ref name=":6" />
Second-wave feminism entered the Spanish comic community by the early 1970s. It was manifested in Spanish comics in two ways. The first was that it increased the number of women involved in comics production as writers and artists. The second was it transformed how female characters were portrayed, making women less passive and less likely to be purely sexual beings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Almerini |first=Katia |date=March 1, 2017 |title=La irrupción del feminismo en el cómic español de los setenta / The Emergence of Feminism in the 1970s Spanish Comic |journal=Anuario del Departamento de Historia y Teoría del Arte |language=es |volume=27 |issue=2015 |doi=10.15366/anuario2015.009 |issn=2530-3562 |doi-access=free|hdl=10486/677364 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== Sweden ===
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=== The Netherlands ===
In 1967, "The Discontent of Women", by [[Joke Smit|Joke Kool-Smits]], was published;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emancipatie.nl/_documenten/js/werk/hetonbehagenbijdevrouw/hetonbehagenbijdevrouw.pdf |title=De gis |language=nl |date=9 October 1967 |website=Emancipatie.nl |access-date=March 1, 2022 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412082405/http://www.emancipatie.nl/_documenten/js/werk/hetonbehagenbijdevrouw/hetonbehagenbijdevrouw.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> the publication of this essay is often regarded as the start of second-wave feminism in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://isgeschiedenis.nl/nieuws/joke-smit-feministe-en-journaliste |title=Joke Smit: feministe en journaliste |language=nl |website=Isgeschiedenis.nl |date=October 6, 2012}}</ref> In this essay, Smit describes the frustration of married women, saying they are fed up being solely mothers and housewives.
== Beginning and consciousness raising ==
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</ref><ref name="autogenerated3">
"Helen still believes, it's just that she has to pay the rent too", by John Burns of the Daily Express, reprinted in ''Melbourne Herald'', December 16, 1981
</ref><ref name="suntimes1">{{Cite web |url=http://southtownstar.suntimes.com/southtown/columns/vickroy/x07-dvy2.htm |archive-url=
=== Olivia Records ===
{{Main|Olivia Records}}
In 1973, a group of five feminists created the first women's owned-and-operated record label, called [[Olivia Records]].<ref name="Wollman">{{cite web|url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/seventies/essays/women-and-music-industry-1970s|title=Women and the Music Industry in the 1970s|last=Wollman|first=Elizabeth|website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History|access-date=March 9, 2017|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They created the record label because they were frustrated that major labels were slow to add female artists to their rosters. One of Olivia's founders, Judy Dlugacz, said that, "It was a chance to create opportunities for women artists within an industry which at that time had few."<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |url=http://0-hnpl.bigchalk.com.catalog.toledolibrary.org/hnweb/hnpl/do/document?set=searchalleras&start=26&rendition=x-article-image&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B2166468282&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B2166468282 |title=Olivia Records: A Healthy Gain in 15 Years |last=Liveton |first=Sharon |date=May 14, 1988 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=April 18, 2017 |archive-date=April 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402170944/http://0-hnpl.bigchalk.com.catalog.toledolibrary.org/hnweb/hnpl/do/document?set=searchalleras&start=26&rendition=x-article-image&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B2166468282&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B2166468282 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Initially, they had a budget of $4,000, and relied on donations to keep Olivia Records alive. With these donations, Olivia Records created their first LP, an album of feminist songs entitled ''I Know You Know.''<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |url=http://0-hnpl.bigchalk.com.catalog.toledolibrary.org/hnweb/hnpl/do/document?set=searchalleras&start=1&rendition=x-article-image&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B650283422&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B650283422 |title=Feminist Record Company: Women Who Love the Spin They're In |last=McKenna |first=Kristine |date=December 11, 1977 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=April 18, 2017 |archive-date=April 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422163341/https://catalog.toledolibrary.org/wamvalidate?url=https://0-search-proquest-com.catalog.toledolibrary.org:443/news |url-status=dead }}</ref> The record label originally relied on volunteers and feminist bookstores to distribute their records, but after a few years their records began to be sold in mainstream record stores.<ref name=":2" />
Olivia Records was so successful that the company relocated from Washington, D.C., to Los Angeles in 1975.<ref name=":3" /> Olivia Records released several records and albums, and their popularity grew.<ref name="Wollman" /> As their popularity grew, an alternative, specialized music industry grew around it. This type of music was initially referred to as "lesbian music" but came to be known as "women's music".<ref name="Wollman" /> However, although Olivia Records was initially meant for women, in the 1980s it tried to move away from that stereotype and encouraged men to listen to their music as well.<ref name=":2" />
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=== Women's music ===
{{Main|Women's music}}
Women's music consisted of female musicians combined music with politics to express feminist ideals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://womensliberationmusicarchive.co.uk|title=The Women's Liberation Music Archive|website=The Women's Liberation Music Archive|access-date=March 9, 2017}}</ref> Cities throughout the United States began to hold Women's Music Festivals, all consisting of female artists singing their own songs about personal experiences.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=http://0-hnpl.bigchalk.com.catalog.toledolibrary.org/hnweb/hnpl/do/document?set=searchalleras&start=1&rendition=x-article-image&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B658294452&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B658294452|title=Women's Music Festival: Alternative in Yosemite|last=Japenga|first=Ann|date=September 21, 1980|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=April 18, 2017|archive-date=April 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422163341/https://catalog.toledolibrary.org/wamvalidate?url=https%3A%2F%2F0-search-proquest-com.catalog.toledolibrary.org%3A443%2Fnews|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first Women's Music Festival was held in 1974 at the University of Illinois.<ref name=":4" /> In 1979, the [[Michigan Womyn's Music Festival]] attracted 10,000 women from across America.<ref name=":4" /> These festivals encouraged already-famous female singers, such as [[Laura Nyro]] and [[Ellen McIlwaine|Ellen McIllwaine]], to begin writing and producing their own songs instead of going through a major record label.<ref name=":4" /> Many women began performing hard rock music, a traditionally male-dominated genre. One of the most successful examples included the sisters Ann and Nancy Wilson, who formed the famous hard rock band [[Heart (band)|Heart]].<ref name=":1" />
=== Film ===
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===== Association of women filmworkers of Germany =====
In 1979, German women filmworkers formed the Association of women filmworkers<ref>Petra Haffter in Jump Cut, no. 30, March 1985, p. 66.</ref> which was active for a few years. In 2014, a new attempt with Proquote Film (then as [[:de:|Proquote Regie]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://proquote-film.de|title=Pro Quote Film|website=Proquote-film.de|access-date=March 1, 2022}}</ref>) turned out to be successful and effective.
A study by the University of Rostock shows that 42% of the graduates of film schools are female, but only 22% of the German feature films are staged by a woman director and are usually financially worse equipped. Similarly, women are disadvantaged in the other male-dominated film trades, where men even without education are preferred to the female graduates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imf.uni-rostock.de/fileadmin/PHF_IMD/Bilder/News/Gender-Report-Deutscher_Kinofilm_2015.pdf|title=''Wer dreht deutsche Kinofilme? Gender Report: 2009–2013'', Studie des Instituts für Medienforschung der Universität Rostock|date=February 2015|website=Imf.uni-rostock.de|access-date=March 1, 2022|archive-date=April 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115841/http://www.imf.uni-rostock.de/fileadmin/PHF_IMD/Bilder/News/Gender-Report-Deutscher_Kinofilm_2015.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The initiative points out that the introduction of a quota system in Sweden has brought the proportion of women in key positions in film production around the same as the population share.<ref>[http://www.sfi.se/en-GB/Statistics/Gender-equality/ ''Gender equality in Swedish Film'', Swedish Film Institute], retrieved 12 February 2015.</ref> As a result, the Swedish initiative calls also for a parity of film funding bodies and the implementation of a gradual women's quota for the allocation of film and television directing jobs in order to achieve a gender-equitable distribution. This should reflect the plurality of a modern society, because diversity can not be guaranteed if more than 80% of all films are produced by men.
ProQuote Film is the third initiative with which women with a high share in their industry are fighting for more female executives and financial resources (see [[:de:|Pro Quote]] Medien (2012) and Quote Medizin).
==== United States ====
In the US, both the creation and subjects of motion pictures began to reflect second-wave feminist ideals,<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Smith|first=Allison A.|date=May 2010|title=Leading Ladies?: Feminism and the Hollywood New Wave|url=https://digitalcommons.salve.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=pell_theses|series=Pell Scholars and Senior Theses|publisher=Salve Regina University|volume=Paper 53}}</ref> leading to the development of [[feminist film theory]]. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, female filmmakers that were involved in part of the new wave of feminist film included [[Joan Micklin Silver]] (''[[Between the Lines (1977 film)|Between the Lines]]''), [[Claudia Weill]] (''[[Girlfriends (1978 film)|Girlfriends]]''), [[Stephanie Rothman]], and [[Susan Seidelman]] (''[[Smithereens (film)|Smithereens]]'', ''[[Desperately Seeking Susan]]'').<ref>{{Cite news|url=
The 2014 documentary ''[[She's Beautiful When She's Angry]]'' was the first [[documentary film]] to cover feminism's second wave.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ride-feminisms-second-wave-new-documentary-shes-beautiful-when-shes-angry-289945|title=Ride Feminism's Second Wave in New Documentary 'She's Beautiful When She's Angry'|date=December 7, 2014|work=Newsweek|access-date=May 19, 2018}}</ref>
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{{Main|Feminist art movement}}
Art during second wave feminism also flourished. Known as the [[Feminist art movement]], the works and artists during the movement fought to give themselves representation in a field dominated by white men. Their works came in all different mediums and aimed to end oppression, challenge gender norms, and highlight the fraught art industry rooted in white patriarchy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feminist art {{!}} MoMA |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/terms/feminist-art |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=The Museum of Modern Art |language=en}}</ref> [[Linda Nochlin]]
== Social changes ==
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== Sex and Sexuality ==
During the time of the second wave, with fighting against the stereotype that women are supposed to be passive and submissive, this topic extended to
In 1978, author [[Audre Lorde]] also discussed this in her book
The magazine
With emotion and the ability to be able to feel to the fullest extent for women, that comes with the idea of separate space. The need to find women-only space so that feminists can organize and work towards liberation. In advocating for these spaces, many accused them of being
==Education==
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The second, [[Vassar College]], declined an offer to merge with [[Yale University]] and instead became coeducational in 1969.
The remaining Seven Sisters decided against coeducation. [[Mount Holyoke College]] engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of [[David Truman]] over the issue of coeducation. On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision."<ref>{{cite news
In 1969, [[Bryn Mawr College]] and [[Haverford College]] (then all male) developed a system of sharing residential colleges. When Haverford became coeducational in 1980, Bryn Mawr discussed the possibly of coeducation as well, but decided against it.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.brynmawr.edu/visit/history.shtml|title=A Brief history of Bryn Mawr College|publisher=brynmawr.edu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120065225/http://www.brynmawr.edu/visit/history.shtml|archive-date=January 20, 2008}}</ref> In 1983, [[Columbia University]] began admitting women after a decade of failed negotiations with [[Barnard College]] for a merger along the lines of Harvard and Radcliffe (Barnard has been affiliated with Columbia since 1900, but it continues to be independently governed). [[Wellesley College]] also decided against coeducation during this time.
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==== Other colleges ====
[[Sarah Lawrence College]] declined an offer to merge with [[Princeton University]], becoming coeducational in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Studentdocs/Coed.html|title=Chicks and Bricks|website=etcweb.princeton.edu|access-date=April 30, 2019|archive-date=June 22, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622051707/http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Studentdocs/Coed.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Connecticut College]] also adopted coeducation during the late 1960s.
[[Wells College]], previously with a student body of women only, became co-educational in 2005. Douglass College, part of [[Rutgers University]], was the last publicly funded women's only college until 2007 when it became coed.
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Beginning in the late 20th century, numerous feminist scholars such as [[Audre Lorde]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Gail |date=July 2005 |title=Audre Lorde: vignettes and mental conversations |journal=[[Feminist Review]] |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=130–145 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400222 |s2cid=189905287 |issn=0141-7789}}</ref> and [[Winona LaDuke]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jenks |first=Tom |date=February 2001 |title=From the Conferences |journal=The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=53–66 |doi=10.1525/jung.1.2001.19.4.53 |issn=0270-6210}}</ref> critiqued the second wave in the United States as reducing feminist activity into a homogenized and whitewashed chronology of [[feminist history]] that ignores the voices and contributions of many [[women of color]], working-class women, and LGBT women.<ref name="Blackwell">{{Cite book |title=¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement |last=Blackwell |first=Maylei |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=9780292726901 |location=Austin |pages=11, 14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies |last=Henry |first=Astrid |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0415808316|location = New York |page=2071 |editor1-last=Orr |editor1-first=Catherine M. |editor2-last=Braithwaite|editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Lichtenstein |editor3-first=Diane |chapter=Chapter 6: Waves |type=Kindle}}</ref>
The second-wave feminist movement in the United States has been criticized for failing to acknowledge the struggles of women of color, and their voices were often silenced or ignored by white feminists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rewire.news/article/2013/07/28/women-of-color-and-feminism-a-history-lesson-and-way-forward/ |title=Women of Color and Feminism: A History Lesson and Way Forward |website=Rewire.News |date=July 29, 2013 |access-date=April 30, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Blackwell"/> It has been suggested that the [[Dominant narrative|dominant historical narratives]] of the feminist movement focuses on white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women and women's [[Consciousness raising|consciousness-raising]] groups, excluding the experiences and contributions of lesbians, women of color, and working-class and lower-class women.<ref name=Douglas /> [[Chela Sandoval]] called the dominant narratives of the women's liberation movement "[[Hegemony|hegemonic]] feminism" because it [[Essentialism|essentializes]] the feminist historiography to an exclusive population of women, which assumes that all women experience the same oppressions as the white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women.{{sfnp|Blackwell|2011|p=16}} [[Multiracial Feminist Theory|Multiracial feminist theory]] also confronts the second-wave feminist movement's focus on white middle-class women by arguing that it neglected the interplay between racism and misogyny.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Becky |date=2002 |title=Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3178747 |journal=Feminist Studies |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=337–360 |doi=10.2307/3178747 |jstor=3178747 |issn=0046-3663|hdl=2027/spo.0499697.0028.210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This restricting view purportedly ignored the oppressions women face determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women-of-color feminisms that separated from the [[women's liberation movement]], such as [[Black feminism]], [[Womanism|Africana womanism]], and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California State University, Long Beach, which was founded by [[Anna Nieto-Gómez]], due to the [[Chicano Movement]]'s [[sexism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Becky |title=Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism |journal=Feminist Studies |year=2002 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=337–360 |doi=10.2307/3178747 |jstor=3178747 |s2cid=152165042 |
Many feminist scholars see the generational division of the second wave as problematic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Babb |first=Florence E. |date=2012 |title=Feminist, Queer, and Indigenous: The Anthropologies of Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy—A Personal Reflection |journal=Feminist Formations |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=69–78 |doi=10.1353/ff.2012.0035 |s2cid=144409984 |issn=2151-7371}}</ref> Second wavers are typically essentialized as the [[Baby boomers|Baby Boomer]] generation, when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second wave were born before World War II ended. This generational essentialism homogenizes the group that belongs to the wave and asserts that every person part of a certain demographic generation shared the same ideologies, because ideological differences were considered to be generational differences.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies |last=Henry |first=Astrid |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0415808316 |location=New York |pages=2134 & 2180 |editor1-last=Orr |editor1-first=Catherine M. |editor2-last=Braithwaite |editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Lichtenstein |editor3-first=Diane |chapter=Chapter 6: Waves |type=Kindle}}</ref>
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== See also ==
{{Portal|Feminism}}
*[[American philosophy]]
*[[Black Feminism]]
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*[[Feminism and racism]]
*[[Feminist movements and ideologies]]
*''[[Femmes solidaires]]''
*[[First-wave feminism]]
*[[Golden Age of Porn]]
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*[[Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)]]
*[[Timeline of women's suffrage]]
{{div col end}}
▲|colwidth=30em}}
== References ==
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*[[Nancy F. Cott|Cott, Nancy]]. ''No Small Courage: A History of Women in the United States'' (2004)
*[[Estelle Freedman|Freedman, Estelle B]]. ''No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women'' (2003)
* {{Cite journal |ref=none |last=Harnois |first=Catherine |title=Re-presenting feminisms: Past, present, and future |journal=NWSA Journal | publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=120–145 |year=2008 |doi=10.1353/ff.2008.a236183 |jstor=40071255 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/nwsa_journal/summary/v020/20.1.harnois.html}}
* MacLean, Nancy. ''The American Women's Movement, 1945–2000: A Brief History with Documents'' (2008)
* Offen, Karen; Pierson, Ruth Roach; and Rendall, Jane, eds. ''Writing Women's History: International Perspectives'' (1991)
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