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{{Short description|Period of feminist activity, 1960s–1980s}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Feminism sidebar |history}}
'''Second-wave feminism''' was a period of [[Feminism|feminist]] activity that began in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades, ending with the [[feminist sex wars]] in the early 1980s<ref name="Douglas">{{cite book |last=Douglas |first=Carol Anne |title=Love and Politics: Radical Feminist and Lesbian Theories |date=July 1990 |publisher=ISM PRESS |isbn=9780910383172 |location=San Francisco, CA, USA}}</ref> and being replaced by [[third-wave feminism]] in the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilmore |first=Stephanie |date=2004 |title=No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women, and: Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century's End, and: Feminism in the Heartland (review) |journal=NWSA Journal |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=190–196 |doi=10.1353/nwsa.2004.0054 |issn=1527-1889 |s2cid=144734371}}</ref> It occurred throughout the [[Western world]] and aimed to increase women's equality by building on the [[First-wave feminism|feminist gains of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.]]
Second-wave feminism built on [[first-wave feminism]] and broadened the scope of debate to include a wider range of issues: sexuality, family, domesticity, the workplace, [[reproductive rights]], ''de facto'' inequalities, and official legal inequalities.<ref>{{cite web |title=women's movement (political and social movement) |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/647122/womens-movement |access-date=July 20, 2012 |website=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> It was a movement focused on critiquing patriarchal or male-dominated institutions and cultural practices throughout society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pierceson, Jason, 1972- |title=Sexual minorities and politics : an introduction |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4422-2768-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |oclc=913610005}}</ref> Second-wave feminism also brought attention to issues of [[domestic violence]] and [[marital rape]], created [[Rape crisis centre|rape crisis centers]] and [[
Because white feminists' voices have dominated the narrative from the early days of the movement, typical narratives of second-wave feminism focus on the sexism encountered by white middle- and upper-class women, with the absence of black and other women of color and the experience of working-class women. Although women of color wrote and founded feminist political activist groups throughout the movement, especially in the 1970s.
The second wave ignored women's differences. Although they were all women grappling with the issue of sexism in a patriarchal society, feminism in some tropical countries is still very underdeveloped due to the different experiences of sexism encountered by women of different regional races.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Susan Archer |last2=Huffman |first2=Douglas J. |date=2005 |title=The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40404229 |journal=Science & Society |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=56–91 |doi=10.1521/siso.69.1.56.56799 |issn=0036-8237 |jstor=40404229}}</ref> Writers like [[Audre Lorde]] think critically and try to homogenize "sisterhood" while ignoring all factors of one's identity such as race, sexuality, age, and class.<ref>Lorde, Audre. 2000. "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Women." Pp. 288-293 in Wendy Komar and Frances Bartkowski, eds., Feminist Theory: A Reader. Mountain View, California: Mayfield.</ref> The term "[[intersectionality]]" was not coined until 1989 by [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]] at the end of the second wave. At the same time, many scholars believe that the beginning of [[Third-wave feminism|third wave feminism]] was due to the problems of the second wave, rather than just another movement.
==Overview in the United States==
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In 1963, Betty Friedan, influenced by Simone de Beauvoir's ground-breaking, feminist ''The Second Sex'', wrote the bestselling book ''The Feminine Mystique''. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home (as 'housewives') limited their possibilities and wasted potential. She had helped conduct a very important survey using her old classmates from [[Smith College]]. This survey revealed that the women who work in the workforce while also playing a role in the home were more satisfied with their life compared with the women who stayed home. The women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these unhappy women had immersed themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |title=The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present |last=Hunt |first=Michael |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937102-0 |location=New York |pages=220, 221}}</ref> Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name".<ref>DuBois and Dumenil. ''Through Women's Eyes: An American History Since 1865''. (Bedford; St Martin's, New York)</ref> The perfect [[nuclear family]] image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=Cynthia Fuchs |date=1988 |title=Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order |location=New Haven |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}</ref> This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/betty-friedan-465800.html |location=London |work=[[The Independent]] |first=Corinne |last=Sweet |title=Betty Friedan |date=February 7, 2006}}</ref> The problems of the nuclear family in America are also heteronormative and is utilized often as a marketing strategy to sell goods within a capitalist driven society.<ref>Snider, Ashton R., "Heteronormativity and the Ideal Family" (2016). Theses. 220. https://irl.umsl.edu/thesis/220</ref>
The report from the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, along with Friedan's book, spoke to the discontent of many women (especially [[homemaker|housewives]]) and led to the formation of local, state, and federal government women's groups along with many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" as early as 1964.<ref>{{cite web |author=CBCtv |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iDZh3nY9clY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/iDZh3nY9clY |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live |title=Betty Friedan: Women | date=February 11, 2009 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=July 20, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
The movement grew with legal victories such as the [[Equal Pay Act of 1963]], [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]], and the ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president.<ref name=fredianfap>{{cite book|title=The Sixties Chronicle|first=David|last=Farber|publisher=Legacy Publishing|page=256|year=2004|isbn=978-1412710091}}</ref>
Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (EEOC) to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.<ref name="fredianfap"/> Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members,<ref name="fredianfap"/> many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=257}} Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.now.org/press/02-06/02-04.html|
In 1963, freelance journalist [[Gloria Steinem]] gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a [[Playboy Bunny]] waitress at the [[Playboy Club]] was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of ''[[Show (magazine)|Show]]''.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=150}} In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume".{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=150}} By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized [[abortion]] and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.{{sfnp|Farber|2004|p=377}}
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In 1968, an [[Students for a Democratic Society|SDS]] organizer at the [[University of Washington]] told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?{{'"}} (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, ''Rebirth of Feminism'', 1971, pg. 120).<ref name="jofreeman.com"/> After the meeting, a handful of women formed [[Seattle]]'s first women's liberation group.<ref name="jofreeman.com"/>
The term "second-wave feminism" itself was brought into common parlance by American journalist Martha Lear in a March 1968 ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' article titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What Do These Women Want?".<ref name="lear2">{{Cite news |last=Lear |first=Martha Weinman |date=March 10, 1968 |title=The Second Feminist Wave: What do these women want? |url=https://nyti.ms/2h6kh3X |access-date=2020-06-25 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref> She wrote, "Proponents call it the Second Feminist Wave, the first having ebbed after the glorious victory of [[Women's suffrage in the United States|suffrage]] and disappeared, finally, into the great sandbar of Togetherness."<ref name="lear2"
Some black feminists who were active in the early second-wave feminism include civil rights lawyer and author [[Florynce Kennedy]], who co-authored one of the first books on abortion, 1971's ''Abortion Rap''; Cellestine Ware, of New York's [[Stanton-Anthony Brigade]]; and Patricia Robinson. These women "tried to show the connections between racism and male dominance" in society.
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*{{cite book |author=Vance, Carole S |title=Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality |year=1989 |publisher=Thorsons Publishers |isbn=978-0-04-440593-1}}</ref>
== "The
[[File:Betty Naomi Goldstein Friedan.jpg|thumb|109x109px|[[Betty Friedan]] published ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' in 1963]]
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=== Finland ===
In the 1960s, feminism again became a part of debate in Finland after the publication of [[Anna-Liisa Sysiharjun]]'s ''Home, Equality and Work'' (1960) and [[Elina Haavio-Mannila
In 1970 there was a brief but strong women's movement belonging to
=== Germany ===
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In 1973, a group of feminists, chaired by [[Hilda Tweedy]] of the [[Irish Housewives Association]], set up the Council for the Status of Women, with the goal of gaining equality for women. It was an umbrella body for women's groups.<ref>[http://www.nwci.ie/about/history.html NWCI History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617212729/http://www.nwci.ie/about/history.html |date=June 17, 2013 }}</ref> During the 1990s the council's activities included supporting projects funded by the [[European Social Fund]], and running Women and Leadership Programmes and forums. In 1995, following a strategic review, it changed its name to the [[National Women's Council of Ireland]].
=== Spain ===
The 1960s in Spain saw a generational shift in Spanish feminist in response to other changes in Spanish society. This included increased emigration and tourism (resulting in the spread of ideas from the rest of the world), greater opportunities in education and employment for women and major economic reforms.<ref name=":6">Nielfa Cristóbal, Gloria. ''Movimientos femeninos'', en ''Enciclopedia Madrid S.XX''</ref> Feminism in the late Franco period and early transition period was not unified. It had many different political dimensions, however, they all shared a belief in the need for greater equality for women in Spain and a desire to defend the rights of women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elmundo.es/la-aventura-de-la-historia/2015/03/08/54faf788e2704ea15e8b4576.html |title=Y nos hicimos visibles |trans-title=And we became visible |date=March 8, 2015 |website=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]] |language=es |access-date=March 27, 2019}}</ref> Feminism moved from being about the individual to being about the collective.<ref name=":19">{{cite web |url=http://www.vocesvisibles.com/historia-del-feminismo/historia-del-feminismo-en-espana |title=Historia del Feminismo en España |language=es |trans-title=History of Feminism in Span |last=Seara |first=Marita |date=November 29, 2015 |website=Voces Visibles |access-date=March 30, 2019}}</ref> It was during this period that second-wave feminism arrived in Spain.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoHC6Oi-SGkC |title=Spanish Women's Writing 1849-1996 |last=Davies |first=Catherine |date=January 1, 1998 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9780485910063 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
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Beginning in the late 20th century, numerous feminist scholars such as [[Audre Lorde]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Gail |date=July 2005 |title=Audre Lorde: vignettes and mental conversations |journal=[[Feminist Review]] |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=130–145 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400222 |s2cid=189905287 |issn=0141-7789}}</ref> and [[Winona LaDuke]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jenks |first=Tom |date=February 2001 |title=From the Conferences |journal=The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=53–66 |doi=10.1525/jung.1.2001.19.4.53 |issn=0270-6210}}</ref> critiqued the second wave in the United States as reducing feminist activity into a homogenized and whitewashed chronology of [[feminist history]] that ignores the voices and contributions of many [[women of color]], working-class women, and LGBT women.<ref name="Blackwell">{{Cite book |title=¡Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement |last=Blackwell |first=Maylei |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=9780292726901 |location=Austin |pages=11, 14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies |last=Henry |first=Astrid |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0415808316|location = New York |page=2071 |editor1-last=Orr |editor1-first=Catherine M. |editor2-last=Braithwaite|editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Lichtenstein |editor3-first=Diane |chapter=Chapter 6: Waves |type=Kindle}}</ref>
The second-wave feminist movement in the United States has been criticized for failing to acknowledge the struggles of women of color, and their voices were often silenced or ignored by white feminists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rewire.news/article/2013/07/28/women-of-color-and-feminism-a-history-lesson-and-way-forward/ |title=Women of Color and Feminism: A History Lesson and Way Forward |website=Rewire.News |date=July 29, 2013 |access-date=April 30, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Blackwell"/> It has been suggested that the [[Dominant narrative|dominant historical narratives]] of the feminist movement focuses on white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women and women's [[Consciousness raising|consciousness-raising]] groups, excluding the experiences and contributions of lesbians, women of color, and working-class and lower-class women.<ref name=Douglas /> [[Chela Sandoval]] called the dominant narratives of the women's liberation movement "[[Hegemony|hegemonic]] feminism" because it [[Essentialism|essentializes]] the feminist historiography to an exclusive population of women, which assumes that all women experience the same oppressions as the white, East Coast, and predominantly middle-class women.{{sfnp|Blackwell|2011|p=16}} [[Multiracial Feminist Theory|Multiracial feminist theory]] also confronts the second-wave feminist movement's focus on white middle-class women by arguing that it neglected the interplay between racism and misogyny.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Becky |date=2002 |title=Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3178747 |journal=Feminist Studies |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=337–360 |doi=10.2307/3178747 |jstor=3178747 |issn=0046-3663|hdl=2027/spo.0499697.0028.210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This restricting view purportedly ignored the oppressions women face determined by their race, class, and sexuality, and gave rise to women-of-color feminisms that separated from the [[women's liberation movement]], such as [[Black feminism]], [[Womanism|Africana womanism]], and the Hijas de Cuauhtémoc that emerged at California State University, Long Beach, which was founded by [[Anna Nieto-Gómez]], due to the [[Chicano Movement]]'s [[sexism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Becky |title=Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism |journal=Feminist Studies |year=2002 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=337–360 |doi=10.2307/3178747 |jstor=3178747 |s2cid=152165042 |hdl=2027/spo.0499697.0028.210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arrastía |first1=Lisa |last2=Watson |first2=Cathryn Merla |last3=Nagar |first3=Richa |date=December 7, 2007 |title=Black, Brown, Yellow and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles by Laura Pulido |journal=Antipode |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=943–947 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2007.00564.x |issn=0066-4812|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dicochea |first=Perlita R. |date=2004 |title=Chicana Critical Rhetoric: Recrafting La Causa in Chicana Movement Discourse, 1970-1979 |journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=77–92 |doi=10.1353/fro.2004.0032 |s2cid=143518721 |issn=1536-0334}}</ref> [[Kimberlé Crenshaw]] coined the term "[[intersectionality]]" in 1989 in response to the white, middle-class views that dominated second-wave feminism. Intersectionality describes the way systems of oppression (i.e. sexism, racism) have multiplicative, not additive, effects, on those who are multiply marginalized. It has become a core tenet of [[third-wave feminism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crenshaw |first=Kimberlé |date=1989 |title="Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics". |url=https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=uclf |journal=University of Chicago Legal Forum |volume=1989 |pages=139–168}}</ref>
Many feminist scholars see the generational division of the second wave as problematic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Babb |first=Florence E. |date=2012 |title=Feminist, Queer, and Indigenous: The Anthropologies of Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy—A Personal Reflection |journal=Feminist Formations |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=69–78 |doi=10.1353/ff.2012.0035 |s2cid=144409984 |issn=2151-7371}}</ref> Second wavers are typically essentialized as the [[Baby boomers|Baby Boomer]] generation, when in actuality many feminist leaders of the second wave were born before World War II ended. This generational essentialism homogenizes the group that belongs to the wave and asserts that every person part of a certain demographic generation shared the same ideologies, because ideological differences were considered to be generational differences.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Rethinking Women's and Gender Studies |last=Henry |first=Astrid |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0415808316 |location=New York |pages=2134 & 2180 |editor1-last=Orr |editor1-first=Catherine M. |editor2-last=Braithwaite |editor2-first=Ann |editor3-last=Lichtenstein |editor3-first=Diane |chapter=Chapter 6: Waves |type=Kindle}}</ref>
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== See also ==
{{Portal|Feminism}}▼
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==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
▲{{Portal|Feminism}}
{{Second-wave feminism}}
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