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Pumped storage is by far the largest-capacity form of [[grid energy storage]] available, and, as of 2020, PSH accounts for around 95% of all active storage installations worldwide, with a total installed throughput capacity of over 181 [[Gigawatt|GW]] and a total installed storage capacity of over 1.6 [[TWh]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2020 |title=DOE OE Global Energy Storage Database |url=https://www.sandia.gov/ess-ssl/global-energy-storage-database-home/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184735/https://www.sandia.gov/ess-ssl/global-energy-storage-database-home/ |archive-date=9 July 2021 |access-date=12 July 2020 |website=U.S. Department of Energy Energy Storage Systems Program |publisher=[[Sandia National Laboratories]]}}</ref>
The main requirement for PSH is hilly country. The global greenfield pumped hydro atlas<ref>{{Cite web |title=ANU RE100 Map |url=https://re100.anu.edu.au/#share=g-e5955e35f1c7f3677ac265bcddb4c30b |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=re100.anu.edu.au}}</ref> lists more than 600,000 potential sites around the world, which is about 100 times more than needed to support 100% renewable electricity. Most are closed-loop systems away from rivers. Areas of natural beauty and new dams on rivers can be avoided because of the very large number of potential sites. Some projects utilise existing reservoirs (dubbed "bluefield") such as the 350 Gigawatt-hour Snowy 2.0 scheme<ref>{{Cite web |title=About |url=https://www.snowyhydro.com.au/snowy-20/about/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Snowy Hydro |language=en-AU}}</ref> under construction in Australia. Some recently proposed projects propose to take advantage of [[Brownfield land|"brownfield" locations]] such as disused mines such as the Kidston project<ref>{{Cite web |title=250MW Kidston Pumped Storage Hydro Project |url=https://genexpower.com.au/250mw-kidston-pumped-storage-hydro-project/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Genex Power |language=en-AU}}</ref> under construction in Australia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201202/20120208ATT37544/20120208ATT37544EN.pdf |title=European Renewable Energy Network |date=2019-07-17 |page=188|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717012026/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201202/20120208ATT37544/20120208ATT37544EN.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2019 }}</ref>▼
Water requirements for PSH are small:<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Blakers |first1=Andrew |last2=Stocks |first2=Matthew |last3=Lu |first3=Bin |last4=Cheng |first4=Cheng |date=2021-03-25 |title=A review of pumped hydro energy storage |journal=Progress in Energy |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=022003 |doi=10.1088/2516-1083/abeb5b |bibcode=2021PrEne...3b2003B |s2cid=233653750 |issn=2516-1083|doi-access=free |hdl=1885/296928 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> about 1 gigalitre of initial fill water per gigawatt-hour of storage. This water is recycled uphill and back downhill between the two reservoirs for many decades, but evaporation losses (beyond what rainfall and any inflow from local waterways provide) must be replaced. Land requirements are also small: about 10 hectares per gigawatt-hour of storage,<ref name=":1" /> which is much smaller than the land occupied by the solar and windfarms that the storage might support. Closed loop (off-river) pumped hydro storage has the smallest carbon emissions<ref>{{Cite web |last=Colthorpe |first=Andy |date=2023-08-21 |title=NREL: Closed-loop pumped hydro 'smallest emitter' among energy storage technologies |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/nrel-closed-loop-pumped-hydro-smallest-emitter-among-energy-storage-technologies/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Energy-Storage.News |language=en-US}}</ref> per unit of storage of all candidates for large-scale energy storage.▼
▲===Basic principle===
[[File:Pumpspeicherkraftwerk engl.png|thumb|Power distribution, over a day, of a pumped-storage hydroelectricity facility. Green represents power consumed in pumping. Red is power generated.]]
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In micro-PSH applications, a group of pumps and [[Pump As Turbine]] (PAT) could be implemented respectively for pumping and generating phases.<ref name=":1a">{{Cite journal |last1=Morabito |first1=Alessandro |title=Pump as turbine applied to micro energy storage and smart water grids: A case study |last2=Hendrick |first2=Patrick |date=2019-10-07 |journal=Applied Energy |volume=241 |pages=567–579 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.018 |s2cid=117172774 |doi-access=|bibcode=2019ApEn..241..567M }}</ref> The same pump could be used in both modes by changing rotational direction and speed:<ref name=":1a" /> the operation point in pumping usually differs from the operation point in PAT mode.
In closed-loop systems, pure pumped-storage plants store water in an upper reservoir with no natural inflows, while pump-back plants utilize a combination of pumped storage and conventional [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric plants]] with an upper reservoir that is replenished in part by natural inflows from a stream or river. Plants that do not use pumped storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in the [[Electric power transmission|electrical grid]] as pumped storage if appropriately equipped.
Taking into account conversion losses and evaporation losses from the exposed water surface, [[energy recovery]] of 70–80% or more can be achieved.<ref name="EconomistPSH">{{Cite news |date=2011-03-03 |title=Energy storage - Packing some power |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21548495?frsc=dg%7Ca |url-status=live |access-date=2012-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306081719/https://www.economist.com/technology-quarterly/2012/03/03/packing-some-power |archive-date=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="thier">{{Cite web |last=Jacob |first=Thierry |date=2011-07-07 |title=Pumped storage in Switzerland - an outlook beyond 2000 |url=http://www.stucky.ch/en/contenu/pdf/Pumped_storage_in_Switzerland_Dr_Jacob.pdf |access-date=2012-02-13 |website=Stucky|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707003324/http://www.stucky.ch/en/contenu/pdf/Pumped_storage_in_Switzerland_Dr_Jacob.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Levine">{{Cite web |last=Levine |first=Jonah G. |date=December 2007 |title=Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage and Spatial Diversity of Wind Resources as Methods of Improving Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources |url=http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/energystorage/files/MSThesis_JGLevine_final.pdf |publisher=University of Colorado |page=6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801113053/http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/energystorage/files/MSThesis_JGLevine_final.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2014 }}</ref><ref name="yang">{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Chi-Jen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPReBwAAQBAJ&dq=info:1fSw0yVikpMJ:scholar.google.com&pg=PA25 |title=Pumped Hydroelectric Storage |date=11 April 2016 |publisher=Duke University|isbn=9780128034491 }}</ref><ref name="ESA">{{Cite web |title=Pumped Hydroelectric Storage {{!}} Energy Storage Association |url=http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/pumped-hydroelectric-storage/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119150459/http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/pumped-hydroelectric-storage/ |archive-date=19 January 2019 |access-date=15 January 2017 |website=energystorage.org}}</ref> This technique is currently the most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy, but capital costs and the necessity of appropriate geography are critical decision factors in selecting pumped-storage plant sites.
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====Small-scale facilities====
Smaller pumped storage plants cannot achieve the same [[economies of scale]] as larger ones, but some do exist, including a recent 13 MW project in Germany. Shell Energy has proposed a 5 MW project in Washington State. Some have proposed small pumped storage plants in buildings, although these are not yet economical.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=de Oliveira e Silva |first1=Guilherme |title=Pumped hydro energy storage in buildings |last2=Hendrick |first2=Patrick |date=2016-10-01 |journal=Applied Energy |volume=179 |pages=1242–1250 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.07.046|bibcode=2016ApEn..179.1242D }}</ref> Also, it is difficult to fit large reservoirs into the urban landscape (and the fluctuating water level may make them unsuitable for recreational use).<ref name=":0" /> Nevertheless, some authors defend the technological simplicity and security of water supply as important [[Externality|externalities]].<ref name=":0" />
==Location requirements==
▲The main requirement for PSH is hilly country. The global greenfield pumped hydro atlas<ref>{{Cite web |title=ANU RE100 Map |url=https://re100.anu.edu.au/#share=g-e5955e35f1c7f3677ac265bcddb4c30b |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=re100.anu.edu.au}}</ref> lists more than 600,000 potential sites around the world, which is about 100 times more than needed to support 100% renewable electricity. Most are closed-loop systems away from rivers. Areas of natural beauty and new dams on rivers can be avoided because of the very large number of potential sites. Some projects utilise existing reservoirs (dubbed "bluefield") such as the 350 Gigawatt-hour Snowy 2.0 scheme<ref>{{Cite web |title=About |url=https://www.snowyhydro.com.au/snowy-20/about/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Snowy Hydro |language=en-AU}}</ref> under construction in Australia. Some recently proposed projects propose to take advantage of [[Brownfield land|"brownfield" locations]] such as disused mines such as the Kidston project<ref>{{Cite web |title=250MW Kidston Pumped Storage Hydro Project |url=https://genexpower.com.au/250mw-kidston-pumped-storage-hydro-project/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Genex Power |language=en-AU}}</ref> under construction in Australia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201202/20120208ATT37544/20120208ATT37544EN.pdf |title=European Renewable Energy Network |date=2019-07-17 |page=188|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717012026/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201202/20120208ATT37544/20120208ATT37544EN.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2019 }}</ref>
==Environmental impact==
▲Water requirements for PSH are small:<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Blakers |first1=Andrew |last2=Stocks |first2=Matthew |last3=Lu |first3=Bin |last4=Cheng |first4=Cheng |date=2021-03-25 |title=A review of pumped hydro energy storage |journal=Progress in Energy |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=022003 |doi=10.1088/2516-1083/abeb5b |bibcode=2021PrEne...3b2003B |s2cid=233653750 |issn=2516-1083|doi-access=free |hdl=1885/296928 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> about 1 gigalitre of initial fill water per gigawatt-hour of storage. This water is recycled uphill and back downhill between the two reservoirs for many decades, but evaporation losses (beyond what rainfall and any inflow from local waterways provide) must be replaced. Land requirements are also small: about 10 hectares per gigawatt-hour of storage,<ref name=":1" /> which is much smaller than the land occupied by the solar and windfarms that the storage might support. Closed loop (off-river) pumped hydro storage has the smallest carbon emissions<ref>{{Cite web |last=Colthorpe |first=Andy |date=2023-08-21 |title=NREL: Closed-loop pumped hydro 'smallest emitter' among energy storage technologies |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/nrel-closed-loop-pumped-hydro-smallest-emitter-among-energy-storage-technologies/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Energy-Storage.News |language=en-US}}</ref> per unit of storage of all candidates for large-scale energy storage.
== History ==
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