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|child3 ='''[[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central]]''': [[Sal languages|Sal]], ''[[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu]]'', [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] ([[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], ''[[Meitei language|Meitei]]'', [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], [[Zeme languages|Zeme]], [[Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages|Kuki-Chin-Mizo]], ''[[Karbi language|Karbi]]''), [[Mruic languages|Mruic]], ''[[Miju languages|Miju]]''
|child4 ='''Eastern''': [[Burmo-Qiangic languages|Burmo-Qiangic]], [[Karenic languages|Karenic]], [[Nungish languages|Nungish]], ''[[Tujia language|Tujia]]''
|child5 ='''
|iso5 =tbq
|glotto =none
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{{legend|#8B4513|[[Tani languages|Tani]]}}
{{legend|#800000|[[Qiangic languages|Qiang]]}}
{{legend|#0000FF|[[
{{legend|#1E90FF|[[Konyak languages|Konyak]]}}
{{col-3}}
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{{col-end}}
}}
The '''Tibeto-Burman languages''' are the non-[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]] members of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language family]], over 400 of which are spoken throughout the [[Southeast Asian Massif]] ("Zomia") as well as parts of [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Around 60 million people speak Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ethnologue: Languages of the World
| editor-given1 = David M. | editor-surname1 = Eberhard
| editor-given2 = Gary F. | editor-surname2 = Simons
| editor-given3 = Charles D. | editor-surname3 = Fennig
| year = 2019 | edition = 22nd
| location = Dallas, Texas | publisher = SIL International
| url = http://www.ethnologue.com
}}</ref> The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and the [[Tibetic languages]], which also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively. Most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail.
Though the division of Sino-Tibetan into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman branches (e.g. Benedict, Matisoff) is widely used, some [[historical linguist]]s criticize this classification, as the non-Sinitic Sino-Tibetan languages lack any [[shared innovation]]s in [[phonology]] or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Guillaume |first=Jacques|chapter=The Tangut Kinship System in Qiangic Perspective|title=Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages IV|date=2012|editor-first=Nathan|editor-last=Hill|page=215}}</ref> to show that they comprise a [[clade]] of the [[phylogenetic tree]].{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=431}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guillaume |first=Jacques|title=A shared suppletive pattern in the pronominal systems of Chang Naga and Southern Qiang|journal=Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale|date=2007|volume=36|issue=1|page=2|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00200873v2/document}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=The origins of Sinitic|title=Increased Empiricism: Recent advances in Chinese Linguistics|first=Scott|last= DeLancey|editor-last=Zhuo|editor-first=Jing-Schmidt|page=74|publisher=John Benjamins|date=2013}}</ref>
==History==
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The link between Tibeto-Burman and Chinese is now accepted by most linguists, with a few exceptions such as [[Roy Andrew Miller]] and [[Christopher I. Beckwith|Christopher Beckwith]].{{sfnp|Miller|1974}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|1996}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|2002}}
More recent controversy has centred on the proposed primary branching of Sino-Tibetan into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman subgroups.
In spite of the popularity of this classification, first proposed by Kuhn and Conrady, and also promoted by [[Paul K. Benedict|Paul Benedict]] (1972) and later [[James Matisoff]], Tibeto-Burman has not been demonstrated to be a valid
== Overview ==
Most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in remote mountain areas, which has hampered their study. Many lack a written standard.
It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|pp=424–432}}
The subgroupings that have been established with certainty number several
These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis.
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The southernmost group is the [[Karen languages]], spoken by three million people on both sides of the Burma–Thailand border. They differ from all other Tibeto-Burman languages (except Bai) in having a [[subject–verb–object]] word order, attributed to contact with [[Tai–Kadai languages|Tai–Kadai]] and [[Austroasiatic languages]].{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|p=18}}
The most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language is [[Burmese language|Burmese]], the national language of Myanmar, with over 32 million speakers and a literary tradition dating from the early 12th century. It is one of the [[Lolo-Burmese languages]], an intensively studied and well-defined group comprising approximately 100 languages spoken in Myanmar and the highlands of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and
The [[Pai-lang]] songs, transcribed in Chinese characters in the 1st century, appear to record words from a Lolo-Burmese language, but arranged in Chinese order.{{sfnp|Coblin|1979}}
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Shafer's tentative classification took an agnostic position and did not recognize Tibeto-Burman, but placed Chinese (Sinitic) on the same level as the other branches of a Sino-Tibetan family.{{sfnp|Shafer|1955}} He retained Tai–Kadai (Daic) within the family, allegedly at the insistence of colleagues, despite his personal belief that they were not related.
{{tree list}}
** ''[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]'' ** ''Burmic''
*** [[Lolo-Burmese languages|Burmish]]
*** [[Mru language|Mruish]]
*** Katśinish ([[Jingpho language|Jingpho]])
*** Tśairelish
*** [[Luish languages|Luish]]
*** Taman
*** [[Kukish languages|Kukish]]
** ''Baric''
*** [[Boro–Garo languages|Barish]]
*** Nagish
** ''[[Karen languages|Karenic]]''
{{tree list/end}}
===Benedict (1972)===
A very influential, although also tentative, classification is that of {{harvtxt|Benedict|1972}}, which was actually written around 1941. Like Shafer's work, this drew on the data assembled by the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, which was directed by Shafer and Benedict in turn. Benedict envisaged Chinese as the first family to branch off, followed by Karen.
{{tree list}}
*Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
*** Karen
*** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}
The Tibeto-Burman family is then divided into seven primary branches:
{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
*** Bodish **** ([[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]], [[Jiarong languages|Gyarung]], [[East Bodish languages|Takpa]], [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]], [[Tamangic languages|Murmi & Gurung]]) ** ''[[Kiranti languages|Bahing–Vayu]]''
*** Bahing ([[Sunuwar language|Sunuwar]], [[Khaling language|Khaling]])
*** [[Wayu language|Vayu]]–[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
** ''[[Tani languages|Abor–Miri–Dafla]]''
*** (perhaps also [[Hruso languages|Aka]], [[Digaro languages|Digaro]], [[Midzu languages|Miju]], and [[Dhimal languages|Dhimal]])
*** (perhaps including [[Sak languages|Luish]])
** ''[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Burmese–Lolo]]''
*** [[Burmish languages|Burmese–Maru]]
*** Northern [[Loloish languages|Lolo]]
*** [[Ugong language|Kanburi Lawa]]
*** [[Naxi language|Moso]]
*** Hsi-fan ([[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]] and [[Jiarongic languages]] apart from Qiang and Gyarung themselves)
*** [[Tangut language|Tangut]]
*** (perhaps also [[Nungish languages|Nung]])
** ''[[Boro-Garo languages|Boro-Garo]]''
*** Boro
*** Garo ([[A·chik]])
*** [[Kokborok language|Tripuri (Kokborok)]]
*** Dimasa
*** Mech
*** Rava ([[Koch language|Koch]])
*** [[Tiwa people (India)|Tiwa]] (Lalung)
*** Sutiya
*** Saraniya
*** Sonowal
*** Thengal
*** (Perhaps also "[[Konyak languages|Naked Naga]]" a.k.a. Konyak)
** ''[[Kukish languages|Kuki–Naga]]'' (a.k.a. Kukish)
*** (perhaps also [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Meithei language|Meithei]], [[Mru language|Mru]])
{{tree list/end}}
===Matisoff (1978)===
[[James Matisoff]] proposes a modification of Benedict that demoted Karen but kept the divergent position of Sinitic.{{sfnp|Namkung|1996|p=455}} Of the 7 branches within Tibeto-Burman, 2 branches (Baic and Karenic) have [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]]-order languages, whereas all the other 5 branches have [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]]-order languages.
{{tree list}}
* Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}
Tibeto-Burman is then divided into several branches, some of them geographic conveniences rather than linguistic proposals:
{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Kamarupan (geographic)
***[[
***[[
***[[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]
**[[
***[[Mahakiranti languages|Mahakiranti]] (includes [[Newar language|Newar]], [[Magar language|Magar]], [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
***[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] (includes [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]])
**[[
**Jingpho–Nungish–Luish
***[[
***[[
***[[
**[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Lolo–Burmese]]–[[Nakhi|Naxi]]
**[[Karen languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]c
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]] (unclassified)
{{tree list/end}}
Matisoff makes no claim that the families in the Kamarupan or Himalayish branches have a special relationship to one another other than a geographic one. They are intended rather as categories of convenience pending more detailed comparative work.
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Since Benedict (1972), many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work, and [[David Bradley (linguist)|Bradley]] (2002) incorporates much of the newer data.{{sfnp|Bradley|2002}}
{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
**** [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
**** [[East Bodish languages|East Bodic]] (incl. [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]])
*** [[Mahakiranti languages|Himalayan]]
**** Eastern ([[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
**** Western ([[Newar language|Newar]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepang]], [[Magaric languages|Magar]], [[Thangmi language|Thangmi]], [[Baram language|Baram]])
*** [[Baric languages|Baric]] ([[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]–[[Konyak languages|Northern Naga]]) ** ''Central'' (perhaps a residual group, not actually related to each other. [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] may also fit here.)
*** [[Miric languages|Adi–Galo–Mishing–Nishi]]
*** [[Mishmic languages|Mishmi]] ([[Digaro languages|Digarish]] and [[Midzu languages|Keman]])
*** [[Nungish languages|Rawang]]
** ''North-Eastern''
*** [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
*** [[Naxi language|Naxi]]–[[Bai language|Bai]]
** ''South-Eastern''
*** [[Karen languages|Karen]]
{{tree list/end}}
===van Driem===
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The internal structure of Tibeto-Burman is tentatively classified as follows by [[James A. Matisoff|Matisoff]] (2015: xxxii, 1123–1127) in the final release of the ''[[Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (STEDT).<ref name="Matisoff2015">Matisoff, James A. 2015. [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/group/1 ''The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus'']. Berkeley: University of California. ([http://stedt.berkeley.edu/dissemination/STEDT.pdf PDF])</ref><ref name="STEDT2015">Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015). ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software''. Software, UC Berkeley Dash. {{doi|10.6078/D1159Q}}</ref>
{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Northeast Indian areal group
***"North Assam"
****[[
**
***
***"[[
****Central Naga ([[
****[[
****[[
****[[Tangkhul languages|Tangkhulic]]
***[[
***Mikir / [[
***[[
***
****[[
****Northern Naga / [[Konyak languages|Konyakian]]
****[[
**
***[[
****[[West Himalayish languages|Western Himalayish]]
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
***[[Newar language|Newar]]
***[[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]
***[[Kham language|Kham]]-[[Magaric languages|Magar]]-[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
**Tangut-Qiang
***[[Tangut language|Tangut]]
***[[
***[[Rgyalrongic languages|rGyalrongic]]
**[[Nungish languages|Nungic]]
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]]
**Lolo-Burmese–Naxi
***[[
***[[
**[[Karenic languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]
{{tree list/end}}
===Other languages===
The classification of [[Tujia language|Tujia]] is difficult due to extensive borrowing. Other unclassified Tibeto-Burman languages include [[Basum language|Basum]] and the
[[Randy LaPolla]] (2003) proposed a [[Rung languages|Rung branch]] of Tibeto-Burman, based on morphological evidence, but this is not widely accepted.
[[Scott DeLancey]] (2015)<ref>DeLancey, Scott. 2015. "Morphological Evidence for a Central Branch of Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan)." ''Cahiers de linguistique
Roger Blench and Mark Post (2011) list a number of divergent languages of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], in northeastern India, that might have non-Tibeto-Burman substrates, or could even be non-Tibeto-Burman [[language isolate]]s:{{sfnp|Blench|Post|2011}}
{{tree list}}
**[[Kamengic languages|Kamengic]]
***[[
***[[Mey language|Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of
***[[
***[[Sartang language|Sartang]]
***[[Chug language|Chug]] and [[Lish language|Lish]] **[[Northern Mishmi languages|[Northern] Mishmi]] (Digarish)
***[[Idu Mishmi language|Idu]] (Luoba)
***[[Digaro Mishmi language|Taraon]] (Digaru)
**[[Siangic languages|Siangic]]
***[[Koro language (India)|Koro]]
***[[Milang language|Milang]]
**[[Puroik language|Puroik]] (Sulung)
**[[Hruso language|Hruso]] (Aka)
**[[Miji language|Miji]] (Sajolang, Dimai, Dhimmai)
**[[Miju Mishmi language|Miju]]
{{tree list/end}}
Blench and Post believe the remaining languages with these substratal characteristics are more clearly Sino-Tibetan:
{{tree list}}
**East Bodish
***[[Zakhring language|Meyor]] (Zakhring)
***[[Tawang Monpa language|Monpa of Tawang]] – [[Tawang District]]
***[[Kalaktang Monpa language|Monpa of Kalaktang]] (Tshangla)
***[[Zemithang Monpa language|Monpa of Zemithang]]
***Monpa of Mago-Thingbu
**Tani: [[Nah language|Nah]]
{{tree list/end}}
== Notes ==
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| volume = X | issue = 2 | year = 1878 | pages = 210–227 | jstor = 25196796
| postscript = . | doi=10.1017/s0035869x00016956
| s2cid = 163329316 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1428638 }}
* {{citation
| first = Zev | last = Handel
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| doi = 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552
| postscript = .
| doi-access = free
}}
* {{citation
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==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages|Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages]]'''''}}
* Mann, Noel Walter (1998). ''[https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/10062 A phonological reconstruction of Proto Northern Burmic]''. Unpublished thesis. Arlington: The University of Texas.
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Tibeto-Burman Languages |volume=26 |pages=928–929 |first=Sten |last=Konow}}
==External links==
* [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT)]
* [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ltba/ ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area''] (journal)
* [http://himalayanlanguages.org/ Himalayan languages site] (by [[George van Driem]])
* [https://sites.google.com/site/sinotibetanbranches/ Sino-Tibetan Branches Project (STBP)]
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{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Tibeto-Burman languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Tibet]]
[[Category:Languages of Myanmar]]
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