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Line 9: \|child3 ='''[[Central Tibeto-Burman languages\|Central]]''': [[Sal languages\|Sal]], ''[[Pyu language (Burma)\|Pyu]]'', [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages\|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] ([[Ao languages\|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages\|Angami–Pochuri]], ''[[Meitei language\|Meitei]]'', [[Tangkhulic languages\|Tangkhulic]], [[Zeme languages\|Zeme]], [[Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages\|Kuki-Chin-Mizo]], ''[[Karbi language\|Karbi]]''), [[Mruic languages\|Mruic]], ''[[Miju languages\|Miju]]'' \|child4 ='''Eastern''': [[Burmo-Qiangic languages\|Burmo-Qiangic]], [[Karenic languages\|Karenic]], [[Nungish languages\|Nungish]], ''[[Tujia language\|Tujia]]'' \|child5 ='''~~Dubious as TB~~Others''': [[Digaro languages\|Digaro]], [[Hrusish languages\|Hrusish]], [[Kho-Bwa languages\|Kho-Bwa]], ''[[Puroik language\|Puroik]]'', [[Siangic languages\|Siangic]], [[Miju languages\|Miju]] \|iso5 =tbq \|glotto =none Line 23: {{legend\|#8B4513\|[[Tani languages\|Tani]]}} {{legend\|#800000\|[[Qiangic languages\|Qiang]]}} {{legend\|#0000FF\|[[~~Boro–Garo~~Bodo–Garo languages\|~~Boro–Garo~~Bodo–Garo]]}} {{legend\|#1E90FF\|[[Konyak languages\|Konyak]]}} {{col-3}} Line 31: {{col-end}} }} The '''Tibeto-Burman languages''' are the non-[[Sinitic languages\|Sinitic]] members of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages\|Sino-Tibetan language family]], over 400 of which are spoken throughout the [[Southeast Asian Massif]] ("Zomia") as well as parts of [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Around 60 million people speak Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref>{{cite book \| title = Ethnologue: Languages of the World \| editor-given1 = David M. \| editor-surname1 = Eberhard \| editor-given2 = Gary F. \| editor-surname2 = Simons \| editor-given3 = Charles D. \| editor-surname3 = Fennig \| year = 2019 \| edition = 22nd \| location = Dallas, Texas \| publisher = SIL International \| url = http://www.ethnologue.com }}</ref> The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, [[Burmese language\|Burmese]] and the [[Tibetic languages]], which also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively. Most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail. Though the division of Sino-Tibetan into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman branches (e.g. Benedict, Matisoff) is widely used, some [[historical linguist]]s criticize this classification, as the non-Sinitic Sino-Tibetan languages lack any [[shared innovation]]s in [[phonology]] or [[Morphology (linguistics)\|morphology]]<ref>{{cite book\|last=Guillaume \|first=Jacques\|chapter=The Tangut Kinship System in Qiangic Perspective\|title=Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages IV\|date=2012\|editor-first=Nathan\|editor-last=Hill\|page=215}}</ref> to show that they comprise a [[clade]] of the [[phylogenetic tree]].{{sfnp\|Handel\|2008\|p=431}}<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Guillaume \|first=Jacques\|title=A shared suppletive pattern in the pronominal systems of Chang Naga and Southern Qiang\|journal=Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale\|date=2007\|volume=36\|issue=1\|page=2\|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00200873v2/document}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|chapter=The origins of Sinitic\|title=Increased Empiricism: Recent advances in Chinese Linguistics\|first=Scott\|last= DeLancey\|editor-last=Zhuo\|editor-first=Jing-Schmidt\|page=74\|publisher=John Benjamins\|date=2013}}</ref> The '''Tibeto-Burman languages''' are the non-[[Sinitic languages\|Sinitic]] members of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages\|Sino-Tibetan language family]], over 400 of which are spoken throughout the highlands of [[Southeast Asia]] as well as certain parts of [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Around 60 million people speak Tibeto-Burman languages, around half of whom speak [[Burmese language\|Burmese]], and 13% of whom speak [[Tibetic languages]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Tibeto.html\|title=Tibeto\|website=www.languagesgulper.com\|language=en\|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref> The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, namely Burmese (over 35 million speakers) and the [[Tibetic languages]] (over 8 million). ~~These languages also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively.~~ ~~Most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail.~~ Though the division of Sino-Tibetan into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman branches (e.g. Benedict, Matisoff) is widely accepted, van Driem has claimed that Tibeto-Burman languages do not have shared innovations and, therefore, do not comprise a [[clade]].{{sfnp\|Handel\|2008\|p=431}} ==History== Line 56 ⟶ 59: The link between Tibeto-Burman and Chinese is now accepted by most linguists, with a few exceptions such as [[Roy Andrew Miller]] and [[Christopher I. Beckwith\|Christopher Beckwith]].{{sfnp\|Miller\|1974}}{{sfnp\|Beckwith\|1996}}{{sfnp\|Beckwith\|2002}} More recent controversy has centred on the proposed primary branching of Sino-Tibetan into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman subgroups. In spite of the popularity of this classification, first proposed by Kuhn and Conrady, and also promoted by [[Paul K. Benedict\|Paul Benedict]] (1972) and later [[James Matisoff]], Tibeto-Burman has not been demonstrated to be a valid ~~family~~subgroup in its own right.{{sfnp\|Handel\|2008\|p=431}} == Overview == Most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in remote mountain areas, which has hampered their study. Many lack a written standard. It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group.{{sfnp\|Handel\|2008\|pp=424–432}} The subgroupings that have been established with certainty number several ~~dozens~~dozen, ranging from well-studied groups of dozens of languages with millions of speakers to several [[language isolate\|isolate]]s, some only ~~newly~~ discovered in the 21st century but in danger of extinction.{{sfnp\|van Driem\|2011a}} These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis. Line 69 ⟶ 72: The southernmost group is the [[Karen languages]], spoken by three million people on both sides of the Burma–Thailand border. They differ from all other Tibeto-Burman languages (except Bai) in having a [[subject–verb–object]] word order, attributed to contact with [[Tai–Kadai languages\|Tai–Kadai]] and [[Austroasiatic languages]].{{sfnp\|Thurgood\|2003\|p=18}} The most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language is [[Burmese language\|Burmese]], the national language of Myanmar, with over 32 million speakers and a literary tradition dating from the early 12th century. It is one of the [[Lolo-Burmese languages]], an intensively studied and well-defined group comprising approximately 100 languages spoken in Myanmar and the highlands of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and ~~Southwest~~[[southwest China]]. Major languages include the [[Loloish languages]], with two million speakers in western [[Sichuan]] and northern [[Yunnan]], the [[Akha language]] and [[Hani language]]s, with two million speakers in southern Yunnan, eastern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam, and [[Lisu language\|Lisu]] and [[Lahu language\|Lahu]] in Yunnan, northern Myanmar and northern Thailand. All languages of the Loloish subgroup show significant Austroasiatic influence.{{sfnp\|Thurgood\|2003\|pp=8–9}} The [[Pai-lang]] songs, transcribed in Chinese characters in the 1st century, appear to record words from a Lolo-Burmese language, but arranged in Chinese order.{{sfnp\|Coblin\|1979}} Line 109 ⟶ 112: Shafer's tentative classification took an agnostic position and did not recognize Tibeto-Burman, but placed Chinese (Sinitic) on the same level as the other branches of a Sino-Tibetan family.{{sfnp\|Shafer\|1955}} He retained Tai–Kadai (Daic) within the family, allegedly at the insistence of colleagues, despite his personal belief that they were not related. {{tree list}} ~~; Sino-Tibetan~~ :* I.'''Sino-Tibetan''' ''[[Sinitic languages\|Sinitic]]'' ~~: II.~~ ?? ''[[Tai–Kadai languages\|Daic]]'' ~~: III.~~ ''Bodic'' ~~::a.~~* Bodish ([[Tamangic languages\|Gurung]], [[Tshangla language\|Tshangla]], [[Rgyalrongic languages\|Gyarong]], [[Tibetic languages\|Tibetic]]) ~~::b.~~* [[West Himalayish languages\|West Himalayish]] (incl. [[Thangmi language\|Thangmi]], [[Baram language\|Baram]], [[Raji–Raute languages\|Raji–Raute]]) ~~::c.~~* West Central Himalayish ([[Magaric languages\|Magar]], [[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]], [[Wayu language\|Hayu]] [misplaced]) ~~::d.~~* [[Kiranti languages\|East Himalayish]] ~~::e.~~* [[Newar language\|Newarish]] ~~::f.~~* [[Digarish languages\|Digarish]] ~~::g.~~* [[Midzu languages\|Midźuish]] ~~::h.~~* [[Hruso languages\|Hruish]] ~~::i.~~* [[Dhimal languages\|Dhimalish]] ~~::j.~~* [[Tani languages\|Miśingish]] ~~::k.~~* [[Qiangic languages\|Dzorgaish]] ''Burmic'' * [[Lolo-Burmese languages\|Burmish]] ~~: IV. ''Burmic''~~ * [[Mru language\|Mruish]] ~~::a. [[Lolo-Burmese languages\|Burmish]]~~ ~~::b.~~* [[~~Mru~~Nungish ~~language~~languages\|~~Mruish~~Nungish]] * Katśinish ([[Jingpho language\|Jingpho]]) ~~::c. [[Nungish languages\|Nungish]]~~ * Tśairelish ~~::d. Katśinish ([[Jingpho language\|Jingpho]])~~ * [[Luish languages\|Luish]] ~~::e. Tśairelish~~ * Taman ~~::f. [[Luish languages\|Luish]]~~ * [[Kukish languages\|Kukish]] ~~::g. Taman~~ ''Baric'' ~~::h. [[Kukish languages\|Kukish]]~~ * [[Boro–Garo languages\|Barish]] ~~: V. ''Baric''~~ * Nagish ~~::a. [[Boro–Garo languages\|Barish]]~~ ** ''[[Karen languages\|Karenic]]'' ~~::b. Nagish~~ {{tree list/end}} ~~: VI. ''[[Karen languages\|Karenic]]''~~ ===Benedict (1972)=== A very influential, although also tentative, classification is that of {{harvtxt\|Benedict\|1972}}, which was actually written around 1941. Like Shafer's work, this drew on the data assembled by the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, which was directed by Shafer and Benedict in turn. Benedict envisaged Chinese as the first family to branch off, followed by Karen. {{tree list}} ~~:Sino-Tibetan~~ Sino-Tibetan ~~:# Chinese~~ * Chinese ~~:# Tibeto-Karen~~ :# Tibeto-Karen * Karen ~~:#* '''Tibeto-Burman'''~~ *** '''Tibeto-Burman''' {{tree list/end}} The Tibeto-Burman family is then divided into seven primary branches: {{tree list}} ~~I. ''[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|Tibetan–Kanauri]]'' (a.k.a. Bodish–Himalayish)~~ * '''Tibeto-Burman''' ~~: A. Bodish~~ :: ''[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|Tibetan–Kanauri]]'' (a.k.a. Bodish–Himalayish) * Bodish ** ([[Tibetic languages\|Tibetic]], [[Jiarong languages\|Gyarung]], [[East Bodish languages\|Takpa]], [[Tshangla language\|Tsangla]], [[Tamangic languages\|Murmi & Gurung]]) ~~: B.~~* Himalayish ~~:: i.~~** "major" [[West Himalayish languages\|Himalayish]] ~~:: ii.~~ "minor" [[West Himalayish languages\|Himalayish]] ~~:::~~* (Rangkas, Darmiya, Chaudangsi, Byangsi) ::* (perhaps also [[Qiangic languages\|Dzorgai]], [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]], [[Magaric languages\|Magari]]) ''[[Kiranti languages\|Bahing–Vayu]]'' * Bahing ([[Sunuwar language\|Sunuwar]], [[Khaling language\|Khaling]]) ~~II. ''[[Kiranti languages\|Bahing–Vayu]]''~~ :* A.[[Sampang ~~Bahing~~language\|Sampang]], ([[~~Sunuwar~~Bantawa language\|~~Sunuwar~~Rungchenbung]], [[~~Khaling~~Yakha language\|Yakha]], and [[Limbu language\|~~Khaling~~Limbu]]) * [[Wayu language\|Vayu]]–[[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]] ~~: B. Khambu ([[Sampang language\|Sampang]], [[Bantawa language\|Rungchenbung]], [[Yakha language\|Yakha]], and [[Limbu language\|Limbu]])~~ :* C.(perhaps also [[~~Wayu~~Newar language\|~~Vayu]]–[[Chepangic languages\|Chepang~~Newar]]) ''[[Tani languages\|Abor–Miri–Dafla]]'' ~~:(perhaps also [[Newar language\|Newar]])~~ * (perhaps also [[Hruso languages\|Aka]], [[Digaro languages\|Digaro]], [[Midzu languages\|Miju]], and [[Dhimal languages\|Dhimal]]) ~~III.~~ ''[[~~Tani~~Jingpho ~~languages~~language\|~~Abor–Miri–Dafla~~Kachin]]'' * (perhaps including [[Sak languages\|Luish]]) ~~:(perhaps also [[Hruso languages\|Aka]], [[Digaro languages\|Digaro]], [[Midzu languages\|Miju]], and [[Dhimal languages\|Dhimal]])~~ ''[[Lolo–Burmese languages\|Burmese–Lolo]]'' * [[Burmish languages\|Burmese–Maru]] ~~IV. ''[[Jingpho language\|Kachin]]''~~ ~~:(perhaps~~* ~~including~~Southern [[~~Sak~~Loloish languages\|~~Luish~~Lolo]]) * Northern [[Loloish languages\|Lolo]] * [[Ugong language\|Kanburi Lawa]] ~~V. ''[[Lolo–Burmese languages\|Burmese–Lolo]]''~~ * [[Naxi language\|Moso]] ~~: A. [[Burmish languages\|Burmese–Maru]]~~ * Hsi-fan ([[Qiangic languages\|Qiangic]] and [[Jiarongic languages]] apart from Qiang and Gyarung themselves) ~~: B. Southern [[Loloish languages\|Lolo]]~~ * [[Tangut language\|Tangut]] ~~: C. Northern [[Loloish languages\|Lolo]]~~ * (perhaps also [[Nungish languages\|Nung]]) ~~: D. [[Ugong language\|Kanburi Lawa]]~~ ''[[Boro-Garo languages\|Boro-Garo]]'' ~~: E. [[Naxi language\|Moso]]~~ * Boro ~~: F. Hsi-fan ([[Qiangic languages\|Qiangic]] and [[Jiarongic languages]] apart from Qiang and Gyarung themselves)~~ * Garo ([[A·chik]]) ~~: G. [[Tangut language\|Tangut]]~~ * [[Kokborok language\|Tripuri (Kokborok)]] ~~:(perhaps also [[Nungish languages\|Nung]])~~ * Dimasa * Mech ~~VI. ''[[Boro-Garo languages\|Boro-Garo]]''~~ * Rava ([[Koch language\|Koch]]) ~~: A. Boro~~ * [[Tiwa people (India)\|Tiwa]] (Lalung) ~~: B. Garo ([[A·chik]])~~ * Sutiya ~~: C. [[Kokborok language\|Tripuri (Kokborok)]]~~ * Saraniya ~~: D. Dimasa~~ * Sonowal ~~: E. Mech~~ * Thengal ~~: F. Rava ([[Koch language\|Koch]])~~ * (Perhaps also "[[Konyak languages\|Naked Naga]]" a.k.a. Konyak) ~~: G. Tiwa (Lalung)~~ ''[[Kukish languages\|Kuki–Naga]]'' (a.k.a. Kukish) ~~: H. Sutiya~~ *** (perhaps also [[Karbi language\|Karbi]], [[Meithei language\|Meithei]], [[Mru language\|Mru]]) ~~: I. Saraniya~~ {{tree list/end}} ~~: J. Sonowal~~ ~~:(Perhaps also "[[Konyak languages\|Naked Naga]]" a.k.a. Konyak)~~ ~~VII. ''[[Kukish languages\|Kuki–Naga]]'' (a.k.a. Kukish)~~ ~~:(perhaps also [[Karbi language\|Karbi]], [[Meithei language\|Meithei]], [[Mru language\|Mru]])~~ ===Matisoff (1978)=== [[James Matisoff]] proposes a modification of Benedict that demoted Karen but kept the divergent position of Sinitic.{{sfnp\|Namkung\|1996\|p=455}} Of the 7 branches within Tibeto-Burman, 2 branches (Baic and Karenic) have [[Subject–verb–object\|SVO]]-order languages, whereas all the other 5 branches have [[Subject–object–verb\|SOV]]-order languages. {{tree list}} ~~:Sino-Tibetan~~ * Sino-Tibetan ~~:# Chinese~~ Chinese ~~:# '''Tibeto-Burman'''~~ '''Tibeto-Burman''' {{tree list/end}} Tibeto-Burman is then divided into several branches, some of them geographic conveniences rather than linguistic proposals: {{tree list}} Kamarupan (geographic) '''Tibeto-Burman''' [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages\|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] (geographic) Kamarupan (geographic) [[Tani languages\|Abor–Miri–Dafla]] [[~~Boro–Garo~~Kuki-Chin–Naga languages\|~~Boro–Garo~~Kuki-Chin–Naga]] (geographic) [[~~Himalayish~~Tani languages\|~~Himalayish~~Abor–Miri–Dafla]] ~~(geographic)~~ [[Boro–Garo languages\|Boro–Garo]] [[Mahakiranti languages\|Mahakiranti]] (includes [[Newar language\|Newar]], [[Magar language\|Magar]], [[Kiranti languages\|Kiranti]]) [[~~Tibeto-Kanauri~~Himalayish languages\|~~Tibeto-Kanauri~~Himalayish]] (~~includes [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]]~~geographic) *[[Mahakiranti languages\|Mahakiranti]] (includes [[Newar language\|Newar]], [[Magar language\|Magar]], [[Kiranti languages\|Kiranti]]) [[Qiangic languages\|Qiangic]] **[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|Tibeto-Kanauri]] (includes [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]]) Jingpho–Nungish–Luish [[~~Jingpho~~Qiangic ~~language~~languages\|~~Jingpho~~Qiangic]] Jingpho–Nungish–Luish [[Nungish languages\|Nungish]] [[~~Sak~~Jingpho ~~languages~~language\|~~Luish~~Jingpho]] [[~~Lolo–Burmese~~Nungish languages\|~~Lolo–Burmese]]–[[Nakhi\|Naxi~~Nungish]] [[~~Karen~~Sak languages\|~~Karenic~~Luish]] [[Lolo–Burmese languages\|Lolo–Burmese]]–[[Nakhi\|Naxi]] [[Bai language\|Bai]]c *[[Karen languages\|Karenic]] [[Tujia language\|Tujia]] (unclassified) [[Bai language\|Bai]]c [[Tujia language\|Tujia]] (unclassified) {{tree list/end}} Matisoff makes no claim that the families in the Kamarupan or Himalayish branches have a special relationship to one another other than a geographic one. They are intended rather as categories of convenience pending more detailed comparative work. Line 230 ⟶ 239: Since Benedict (1972), many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work, and [[David Bradley (linguist)\|Bradley]] (2002) incorporates much of the newer data.{{sfnp\|Bradley\|2002}} {{tree list}} ~~I. Western (= [[Bodic languages\|Bodic]])~~ * '''Tibeto-Burman''' ~~: A. [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|Tibetan–Kanauri]]~~ :: i.Western (= [[~~Tibetic~~Bodic languages\|~~Tibetic~~Bodic]]) ~~:: ii.~~* [[~~Tamangic~~Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|~~Gurung~~Tibetan–Kanauri]] ** [[Tibetic languages\|Tibetic]] ~~:: iii. [[East Bodish languages\|East Bodic]] (incl. [[Tshangla language\|Tsangla]])~~ ~~:: iv.~~ [[~~West Himalayish~~Tamangic languages\|~~Kanauri~~Gurung]] [[East Bodish languages\|East Bodic]] (incl. [[Tshangla language\|Tsangla]]) ~~: B. [[Mahakiranti languages\|Himalayan]]~~ :: ~~i. Eastern (~~[[~~Kiranti~~West Himalayish languages\|~~Kiranti~~Kanauri]]) * [[Mahakiranti languages\|Himalayan]] ~~:: ii. Western ([[Newar language\|Newar]], [[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]], [[Magaric languages\|Magar]], [[Thangmi language\|Thangmi]], [[Baram language\|Baram]])~~ ** Eastern ([[Kiranti languages\|Kiranti]]) Western ([[Newar language\|Newar]], [[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]], [[Magaric languages\|Magar]], [[Thangmi language\|Thangmi]], [[Baram language\|Baram]]) ~~II. ''[[Sal languages\|Sal]]''~~ : A.''[[Sal languages\|Sal]]'' * [[Baric languages\|Baric]] ([[Boro–Garo languages\|Boro–Garo]]–[[Konyak languages\|Northern Naga]]) ~~: B.~~* [[Jingpho language\|Jinghpaw]] ~~: C.~~* [[Sak languages\|Luish]] (incl. [[Pyu language (Burma)\|Pyu]]) ~~: D.~~* [[Kuki-Chin languages\|Kuki-Chin]] (incl. [[Meitei language\|Meithei]] and [[Karbi language\|Karbi]]) ''Central'' (perhaps a residual group, not actually related to each other. [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]] may also fit here.) * [[Miric languages\|Adi–Galo–Mishing–Nishi]] ~~III. ''Central'' (perhaps a residual group, not actually related to each other. [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]] may also fit here.)~~ * [[Mishmic languages\|Mishmi]] ([[Digaro languages\|Digarish]] and [[Midzu languages\|Keman]]) ~~: A. [[Miric languages\|Adi–Galo–Mishing–Nishi]]~~ * [[Nungish languages\|Rawang]] ~~: B. [[Mishmic languages\|Mishmi]] ([[Digaro languages\|Digarish]] and [[Midzu languages\|Keman]])~~ ''North-Eastern'' ~~: C. [[Nungish languages\|Rawang]]~~ * [[Qiangic languages\|Qiangic]] * [[Naxi language\|Naxi]]–[[Bai language\|Bai]] ~~IV. ''North-Eastern''~~ ~~: A.~~* [[~~Qiangic~~Tujia ~~languages~~language\|~~Qiangic~~Tujia]] :* ~~B. [[Naxi language\|Naxi]]–~~[[~~Bai~~Tangut language\|~~Bai~~Tangut]] ''South-Eastern'' ~~: C. [[Tujia language\|Tujia]]~~ :* D[[Lolo–Burmese languages\|Burmese–Lolo]] (incl. [[~~Tangut~~Mru language\|~~Tangut~~Mru]]) * [[Karen languages\|Karen]] {{tree list/end}} ~~V. ''South-Eastern''~~ ~~: A. [[Lolo–Burmese languages\|Burmese–Lolo]] (incl. [[Mru language\|Mru]])~~ ~~: B. [[Karen languages\|Karen]]~~ ===van Driem=== Line 267 ⟶ 275: The internal structure of Tibeto-Burman is tentatively classified as follows by [[James A. Matisoff\|Matisoff]] (2015: xxxii, 1123–1127) in the final release of the ''[[Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (STEDT).<ref name="Matisoff2015">Matisoff, James A. 2015. [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/group/1 ''The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus'']. Berkeley: University of California. ([http://stedt.berkeley.edu/dissemination/STEDT.pdf PDF])</ref><ref name="STEDT2015">Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015). ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software''. Software, UC Berkeley Dash. {{doi\|10.6078/D1159Q}}</ref> {{tree list}} Northeast Indian areal group '''Tibeto-Burman''' "North Assam" Northeast Indian areal group *[[Tani languages\|Tani]] "North Assam" [[Digaro languages\|Deng]] [[~~Kukish~~Tani languages\|~~Kuki-Chin~~Tani]] "[[~~Naga~~Digaro languages\|~~Naga~~Deng]]~~" areal group~~ ~~Central Naga (~~[[AoKukish languages\|AoKuki-Chin]] ~~group)~~ "[[~~Angami–Pochuri~~Naga languages\|~~Angami–Pochuri~~Naga]]" areal group Central Naga ([[~~Zeme~~Ao languages\|~~Zeme~~Ao]] group) [[~~Tangkhul~~Angami–Pochuri languages\|~~Tangkhulic~~Angami–Pochuri]] group [[~~Meithei~~Zeme ~~language~~languages\|~~Meithei~~Zeme]] group [[Tangkhul languages\|Tangkhulic]] Mikir / [[Karbi language\|Karbi]] *[[~~Mruic~~Meithei ~~languages~~language\|~~Mru~~Meithei]] Mikir / [[~~Sal~~Karbi ~~languages~~language\|~~Sal~~Karbi]] [[~~Boro–Garo~~Mruic languages\|~~Boro–Garo~~Mru]] ~~Northern Naga /~~ [[~~Konyak~~Sal languages\|~~Konyakian~~Sal]] *[[~~Kachin–Luic~~Boro–Garo languages\|~~Jingpho–Asakian~~Boro–Garo]] *Northern Naga / [[Konyak languages\|Konyakian]] Himalayish **[[~~Tibeto-Kanauri~~Kachin–Luic languages\|~~Tibeto-Kanauri~~Jingpho–Asakian]] [[West Himalayish ~~languages\|Western Himalayish]]~~ [[~~Bodish~~Tibeto-Kanauri languages\|~~Bodic~~Tibeto-Kanauri]] [[West Himalayish languages\|Western Himalayish]] [[Lepcha language\|Lepcha]] *[[~~Tamangic~~Bodish languages\|~~Tamangish~~Bodic]] [[~~Dhimal~~Lepcha ~~languages~~language\|~~Dhimal~~Lepcha]] [[~~Newar~~Tamangic ~~language~~languages\|~~Newar~~Tamangish]] [[~~Kiranti~~Dhimal languages\|~~Kiranti~~Dhimal]] [[Newar language\|Newar]] [[Kham language\|Kham]]-[[Magaric languages\|Magar]]-[[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]] *[[Kiranti languages\|Kiranti]] Tangut-Qiang *[[Kham language\|Kham]]-[[Magaric languages\|Magar]]-[[Chepangic languages\|Chepang]] [[Tangut language\|Tangut]] Tangut-Qiang [[Qiangic languages\|Qiangic]] *[[Tangut language\|Tangut]] [[Rgyalrongic languages\|rGyalrongic]] *[[~~Nungish~~Qiangic languages\|~~Nungic~~Qiangic]] [[Rgyalrongic languages\|rGyalrongic]] [[Tujia language\|Tujia]] *[[Nungish languages\|Nungic]] Lolo-Burmese–Naxi [[Tujia language\|Tujia]] [[Lolo-Burmese languages\|Lolo-Burmese]] Lolo-Burmese–Naxi [[Naic languages\|Naxi]] *[[~~Karenic~~Lolo-Burmese languages\|~~Karenic~~Lolo-Burmese]] [[~~Bai~~Naic ~~language~~languages\|~~Bai~~Naxi]] [[Karenic languages\|Karenic]] [[Bai language\|Bai]] {{tree list/end}} ===Other languages=== The classification of [[Tujia language\|Tujia]] is difficult due to extensive borrowing. Other unclassified Tibeto-Burman languages include [[Basum language\|Basum]] and the ~~recently described~~ [[~~Lamo~~Songlin language\|~~Lamo~~Songlin]] ~~language~~and [[Chamdo languages]], both of which were only described in the 2010s. New Tibeto-Burman languages continue to be recognized, some not closely related to other languages. ~~Recently~~Distinct languages only recognized ~~distinct~~in ~~languages~~the 2010s include [[Koki Naga language\|Koki Naga]]. [[Randy LaPolla]] (2003) proposed a [[Rung languages\|Rung branch]] of Tibeto-Burman, based on morphological evidence, but this is not widely accepted. [[Scott DeLancey]] (2015)<ref>DeLancey, Scott. 2015. "Morphological Evidence for a Central Branch of Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan)." ''Cahiers de linguistique -– Asie oriental'' 44(2):~~122-149~~122–149. December 2015. {{doi\|10.1163/19606028-00442p02}}</ref> proposed a [[Central Tibeto-Burman languages\|Central branch]] of Tibeto-Burman based on morphological evidence. Roger Blench and Mark Post (2011) list a number of divergent languages of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], in northeastern India, that might have non-Tibeto-Burman substrates, or could even be non-Tibeto-Burman [[language isolate]]s:{{sfnp\|Blench\|Post\|2011}} {{tree list}} [[Kamengic languages\|Kamengic]] [[Kamengic languages\|Kamengic]] [[Bugun language\|Bugun]] (Khowa) *[[~~Mey~~Bugun language\|~~Mey~~Bugun]] (~~Sherdukpen~~Khowa) ~~of Shergaon~~ [[Mey language\|Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of ~~Rupa~~Shergaon [[~~Sartang~~Mey language\|~~Sartang~~Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of Rupa [[Sartang language\|Sartang]] [[Chug language\|Chug]] and [[Lish language\|Lish]] [[Northern Mishmi languages\|[Northern] Mishmi]] (Digarish) *[[Idu Mishmi language\|Idu]] (Luoba) [[Digaro Mishmi language\|Taraon]] (Digaru) [[Siangic languages\|Siangic]] [[Koro language (India)\|Koro]] [[Milang language\|Milang]] [[Puroik language\|Puroik]] (Sulung) -– [[East Kameng District]] [[Hruso language\|Hruso]] (Aka) -– Thrizino Circle, [[West Kameng District]] [[Miji language\|Miji]] (Sajolang, Dimai, Dhimmai) [[Miju Mishmi language\|Miju]] {{tree list/end}} Blench and Post believe the remaining languages with these substratal characteristics are more clearly Sino-Tibetan: East Bodish {{tree list}} [[Zakhring language\|Meyor]] (Zakhring) East Bodish [[Tawang Monpa language\|Monpa of Tawang]] - [[Tawang District]] [[~~Kalaktang Monpa~~Zakhring language\|~~Monpa of Kalaktang~~Meyor]] (~~Tshangla~~Zakhring) [[~~Zemithang~~Tawang Monpa language\|Monpa of ~~Zemithang~~Tawang]] – [[Tawang District]] [[Kalaktang Monpa language\|Monpa of Kalaktang]] (Tshangla) Monpa of Mago-Thingbu ~~Tani:~~ [[~~Nah~~Zemithang Monpa language\|~~Nah~~Monpa of Zemithang]] Monpa of Mago-Thingbu Tani: [[Nah language\|Nah]] {{tree list/end}} == Notes == Line 469 ⟶ 486: \| volume = X \| issue = 2 \| year = 1878 \| pages = 210–227 \| jstor = 25196796 \| postscript = . \| doi=10.1017/s0035869x00016956 \| s2cid = 163329316 \| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1428638 }} {{citation \| first = Zev \| last = Handel Line 530 ⟶ 547: \| doi = 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552 \| postscript = . \| doi-access = free }} * {{citation Line 592 ⟶ 610: ==Further reading== {{sister project \|project=wiktionary \|text=[[Wiktionary]] has '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages\|Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages]]'''''}} * Mann, Noel Walter. (1998). ''[https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/10062 A phonological reconstruction of Proto Northern Burmic]''. Unpublished thesis. Arlington: The University of Texas. * {{cite EB1911 \|wstitle=Tibeto-Burman Languages \|volume=26 \|pages=928–929 \|first=Sten \|last=Konow}} ==External links== * [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT)] * [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ltba/ ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area''] (journal)] * [http://himalayanlanguages.org/ Himalayan languages site] (by [[George van Driem]]) * [https://sites.google.com/site/sinotibetanbranches/ Sino-Tibetan Branches Project (STBP)] Line 603 ⟶ 621: {{Sino-Tibetan languages}} ~~{{Uttarakhand}}~~ {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tibeto-Burman languages\| ]] [[Category:Languages of Tibet]] [[Category:Languages of Myanmar]]