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{{Short description|Group of the Sino-Tibetan language family}}
{{Infobox language family
|name =Tibeto-
|region =[[Southeast Asia]], [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]]
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|protoname=[[Proto-Tibeto-
|child1 =''[[Gongduk language|Gongduk]]'', ''[[Lhokpu language|Lhokpu]]'', ''[['Ole language|'Ole]]'', ''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]'', [[Tani languages|Tani]]
|child2 ='''[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Western]]''': [[Bodish languages|Bodish]], ''[[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]'', [[Tamangic languages|Tamangic]], [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]], [[Greater Magaric languages|Greater Magaric]], [[Newaric language|Newaric]], [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]
|child3 ='''[[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central]]''': [[Sal languages|Sal]], ''[[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu]]'', [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] ([[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], ''[[Meitei language|Meitei]]'', [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], [[Zeme languages|Zeme]], [[Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages|Kuki-Chin-Mizo]], ''[[Karbi language|Karbi]]''), [[Mruic languages|Mruic]], ''[[Miju languages|Miju]]''
|child4 ='''Eastern''': [[Burmo-Qiangic languages|Burmo-Qiangic]], [[Karenic languages|Karenic]], [[Nungish languages|Nungish]], ''[[Tujia language|Tujia]]''
|child5 ='''
|iso5 =tbq
|glotto =none
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{{legend|#8B4513|[[Tani languages|Tani]]}}
{{legend|#800000|[[Qiangic languages|Qiang]]}}
{{legend|#0000FF|[[
{{legend|#1E90FF|[[Konyak languages|Konyak]]}}
{{col-3}}
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{{col-end}}
}}
The '''Tibeto-
| editor-given1 = David M. | editor-surname1 = Eberhard
| editor-given2 = Gary F. | editor-surname2 = Simons
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The link between Tibeto-Burman and Chinese is now accepted by most linguists, with a few exceptions such as [[Roy Andrew Miller]] and [[Christopher I. Beckwith|Christopher Beckwith]].{{sfnp|Miller|1974}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|1996}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|2002}}
More recent controversy has centred on the proposed primary branching of Sino-Tibetan into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman subgroups.
In spite of the popularity of this classification, first proposed by Kuhn and Conrady, and also promoted by [[Paul K. Benedict|Paul Benedict]] (1972) and later [[James Matisoff]], Tibeto-Burman has not been demonstrated to be a valid
== Overview ==
Most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in remote mountain areas, which has hampered their study. Many lack a written standard.
It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|pp=424–432}}
The subgroupings that have been established with certainty number several dozen, ranging from well-studied groups of dozens of languages with millions of speakers to several [[language isolate|isolate]]s, some only
These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis.
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Shafer's tentative classification took an agnostic position and did not recognize Tibeto-Burman, but placed Chinese (Sinitic) on the same level as the other branches of a Sino-Tibetan family.{{sfnp|Shafer|1955}} He retained Tai–Kadai (Daic) within the family, allegedly at the insistence of colleagues, despite his personal belief that they were not related.
{{tree list}}
** ''[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]'' ** ''Burmic''
*** [[Lolo-Burmese languages|Burmish]]
*** [[Mru language|Mruish]]
*** Katśinish ([[Jingpho language|Jingpho]])
*** Tśairelish
*** [[Luish languages|Luish]]
*** Taman
*** [[Kukish languages|Kukish]]
** ''Baric''
*** [[Boro–Garo languages|Barish]]
*** Nagish
** ''[[Karen languages|Karenic]]''
{{tree list/end}}
===Benedict (1972)===
A very influential, although also tentative, classification is that of {{harvtxt|Benedict|1972}}, which was actually written around 1941. Like Shafer's work, this drew on the data assembled by the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, which was directed by Shafer and Benedict in turn. Benedict envisaged Chinese as the first family to branch off, followed by Karen.
{{tree list}}
*Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
*** Karen
*** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}
The Tibeto-Burman family is then divided into seven primary branches:
{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
*** Bodish **** ([[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]], [[Jiarong languages|Gyarung]], [[East Bodish languages|Takpa]], [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]], [[Tamangic languages|Murmi & Gurung]]) ** ''[[Kiranti languages|Bahing–Vayu]]''
*** Bahing ([[Sunuwar language|Sunuwar]], [[Khaling language|Khaling]])
*** [[Wayu language|Vayu]]–[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
** ''[[Tani languages|Abor–Miri–Dafla]]''
*** (perhaps also [[Hruso languages|Aka]], [[Digaro languages|Digaro]], [[Midzu languages|Miju]], and [[Dhimal languages|Dhimal]])
*** (perhaps including [[Sak languages|Luish]])
** ''[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Burmese–Lolo]]''
*** [[Burmish languages|Burmese–Maru]]
*** Northern [[Loloish languages|Lolo]]
*** [[Ugong language|Kanburi Lawa]]
*** [[Naxi language|Moso]]
*** Hsi-fan ([[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]] and [[Jiarongic languages]] apart from Qiang and Gyarung themselves)
*** [[Tangut language|Tangut]]
*** (perhaps also [[Nungish languages|Nung]])
** ''[[Boro-Garo languages|Boro-Garo]]''
*** Boro
*** Garo ([[A·chik]])
*** [[Kokborok language|Tripuri (Kokborok)]]
*** Dimasa
*** Mech
*** Rava ([[Koch language|Koch]])
*** [[Tiwa people (India)|Tiwa]] (Lalung)
*** Sutiya
*** Saraniya
*** Sonowal
*** Thengal
*** (Perhaps also "[[Konyak languages|Naked Naga]]" a.k.a. Konyak)
** ''[[Kukish languages|Kuki–Naga]]'' (a.k.a. Kukish)
*** (perhaps also [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Meithei language|Meithei]], [[Mru language|Mru]])
{{tree list/end}}
===Matisoff (1978)===
[[James Matisoff]] proposes a modification of Benedict that demoted Karen but kept the divergent position of Sinitic.{{sfnp|Namkung|1996|p=455}} Of the 7 branches within Tibeto-Burman, 2 branches (Baic and Karenic) have [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]]-order languages, whereas all the other 5 branches have [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]]-order languages.
{{tree list}}
* Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}
Tibeto-Burman is then divided into several branches, some of them geographic conveniences rather than linguistic proposals:
{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Kamarupan (geographic)
***[[
***[[
***[[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]
**[[
***[[Mahakiranti languages|Mahakiranti]] (includes [[Newar language|Newar]], [[Magar language|Magar]], [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
***[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] (includes [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]])
**[[
**Jingpho–Nungish–Luish
***[[
***[[
***[[
**[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Lolo–Burmese]]–[[Nakhi|Naxi]]
**[[Karen languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]c
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]] (unclassified)
{{tree list/end}}
Matisoff makes no claim that the families in the Kamarupan or Himalayish branches have a special relationship to one another other than a geographic one. They are intended rather as categories of convenience pending more detailed comparative work.
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Since Benedict (1972), many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work, and [[David Bradley (linguist)|Bradley]] (2002) incorporates much of the newer data.{{sfnp|Bradley|2002}}
{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
**** [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
**** [[East Bodish languages|East Bodic]] (incl. [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]])
*** [[Mahakiranti languages|Himalayan]]
**** Eastern ([[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
**** Western ([[Newar language|Newar]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepang]], [[Magaric languages|Magar]], [[Thangmi language|Thangmi]], [[Baram language|Baram]])
*** [[Baric languages|Baric]] ([[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]–[[Konyak languages|Northern Naga]]) ** ''Central'' (perhaps a residual group, not actually related to each other. [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] may also fit here.)
*** [[Miric languages|Adi–Galo–Mishing–Nishi]]
*** [[Mishmic languages|Mishmi]] ([[Digaro languages|Digarish]] and [[Midzu languages|Keman]])
*** [[Nungish languages|Rawang]]
** ''North-Eastern''
*** [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
*** [[Naxi language|Naxi]]–[[Bai language|Bai]]
** ''South-Eastern''
*** [[Karen languages|Karen]]
{{tree list/end}}
===van Driem===
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The internal structure of Tibeto-Burman is tentatively classified as follows by [[James A. Matisoff|Matisoff]] (2015: xxxii, 1123–1127) in the final release of the ''[[Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (STEDT).<ref name="Matisoff2015">Matisoff, James A. 2015. [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/group/1 ''The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus'']. Berkeley: University of California. ([http://stedt.berkeley.edu/dissemination/STEDT.pdf PDF])</ref><ref name="STEDT2015">Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015). ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software''. Software, UC Berkeley Dash. {{doi|10.6078/D1159Q}}</ref>
{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Northeast Indian areal group
***"North Assam"
****[[
**
***
***"[[
****Central Naga ([[
****[[
****[[
****[[Tangkhul languages|Tangkhulic]]
***[[
***Mikir / [[
***[[
***
****[[
****Northern Naga / [[Konyak languages|Konyakian]]
****[[
**
***[[
****[[West Himalayish languages|Western Himalayish]]
****[[
****[[
****[[
****[[
***[[Newar language|Newar]]
***[[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]
***[[Kham language|Kham]]-[[Magaric languages|Magar]]-[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
**Tangut-Qiang
***[[Tangut language|Tangut]]
***[[
***[[Rgyalrongic languages|rGyalrongic]]
**[[Nungish languages|Nungic]]
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]]
**Lolo-Burmese–Naxi
***[[
***[[
**[[Karenic languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]
{{tree list/end}}
===Other languages===
The classification of [[Tujia language|Tujia]] is difficult due to extensive borrowing. Other unclassified Tibeto-Burman languages include [[Basum language|Basum]] and the
[[Randy LaPolla]] (2003) proposed a [[Rung languages|Rung branch]] of Tibeto-Burman, based on morphological evidence, but this is not widely accepted.
[[Scott DeLancey]] (2015)<ref>DeLancey, Scott. 2015. "Morphological Evidence for a Central Branch of Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan)." ''Cahiers de linguistique
Roger Blench and Mark Post (2011) list a number of divergent languages of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], in northeastern India, that might have non-Tibeto-Burman substrates, or could even be non-Tibeto-Burman [[language isolate]]s:{{sfnp|Blench|Post|2011}}
{{tree list}}
**[[Kamengic languages|Kamengic]]
***[[
***[[Mey language|Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of
***[[
***[[Sartang language|Sartang]]
***[[Chug language|Chug]] and [[Lish language|Lish]] **[[Northern Mishmi languages|[Northern] Mishmi]] (Digarish)
***[[Idu Mishmi language|Idu]] (Luoba)
***[[Digaro Mishmi language|Taraon]] (Digaru)
**[[Siangic languages|Siangic]]
***[[Koro language (India)|Koro]]
***[[Milang language|Milang]]
**[[Puroik language|Puroik]] (Sulung)
**[[Hruso language|Hruso]] (Aka)
**[[Miji language|Miji]] (Sajolang, Dimai, Dhimmai)
**[[Miju Mishmi language|Miju]]
{{tree list/end}}
Blench and Post believe the remaining languages with these substratal characteristics are more clearly Sino-Tibetan:
{{tree list}}
**East Bodish
***[[
***[[
***[[Kalaktang Monpa language|Monpa of Kalaktang]] (Tshangla)
*
***Monpa of Mago-Thingbu
**Tani: [[Nah language|Nah]]
{{tree list/end}}
== Notes ==
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| volume = X | issue = 2 | year = 1878 | pages = 210–227 | jstor = 25196796
| postscript = . | doi=10.1017/s0035869x00016956
| s2cid = 163329316 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1428638 }}
* {{citation
| first = Zev | last = Handel
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| doi = 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552
| postscript = .
| doi-access = free
}}
* {{citation
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==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages|Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages]]'''''}}
* Mann, Noel Walter
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Tibeto-Burman Languages |volume=26 |pages=928–929 |first=Sten |last=Konow}}
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[[Category:Tibeto-Burman languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Tibet]]
[[Category:Languages of Myanmar]]
|