Configuration management as a distinct sub-discipline of operations engineering has roots in the mid-1990s. Prior to then, even sites with a large number of users like universities and large ISPs had relatively few Unix systems. Each of those systems was generally what today's operations community calls a "snowflake system" (after the phrase "a precious and unique snowflake"). They were carefully hand-built to purpose, rarely replaced, and provided a unique set of services to their users.

The rise of free Unix-like Operating Systems and commodity x86 hardware, coupled with the increasing demands to scale booming Internet services meant the old paradigms of capturing configuration were no longer adequate. Lore kept in text files, post-bootstrap shell scripts, and tales told around the proverbial campfire just didn't scale. Administrators needed automation tools which could stamp out new machines quickly, plus manage configuration drift as users made changes (deliberately or accidentally) that affected the functioning of a running system.

The first such tool to gain prominence was CFEngine, an open-source project written in C by Mark Burgess, a CS professor at Oslo University. CFEngine popularized the idea of idempotence in systems administration tasks, encouraging users to describe their system administration tasks in ways that would be convergent over time rather than strictly imperative shell or perl scripting.

.. todo:: a specific example of convergent over time might help

In the early 2000s, the systems administration community began to focus more intensely on configuration management as distributed systems became both more complex and more common. A series of LISA papers and an explosion in the number and sophistication of open-source tools emerged. Some highlights and background reading:

• Steve Traugott's isconf3 system and paper "Bootstrapping an Infrastructure" provided a concrete model for repeatable, scalable provisioning and config management.
• CERN released and wrote about Quattor which they used to build and administer high-performance compute clusters at larger scale than most sites at the time had dealt with.
• Alva Couch from Tufts University and Paul Anderson from University of Edinburgh, laid out theoretical underpinnings for configuration management in a joint session at LISA'04
• Narayan Desai's bcfg2 system provided a hackable Python CM project with early support for advanced features like templating and encrypted data
• Recapitulating Luke Kanies' departure from cfengine to start Puppet, Adam Jacob created Chef in 2008 to address fundamental differences with Puppet (primarily execution of ordering and writing user code in Ruby vs a DSL).

By 2008, provisioning and configuration management of individual systems were well-understood (if not completely "solved") problems, and the community's attention had shifted to the next level of complexity: cross-node interactions and orchestration, application deployment, and managing ephemeral cloud computing instances rather than (or alongside) long-lived physical hardware.

A new crop of CM tools and approaches "born in the cloud" began to emerge in the 2010s to address this shift. SaltStack, Ansible, and Chef-v11 built on advances in language (Erlang and Clojure vs Ruby and Python), methodology (continuous deployment and orchestration vs static policy enforcement), and the component stack (ZeroMQ and MongoDB vs MySQL).

Whatever specific configuration management tooling operations engineers encounter as an operations engineer, ultimately the technology exists to enable business goals -- short time-to-restore in the face of component failure, auditable assurance of control, low ratio of operators per managed system, etc. -- in a world whose IT systems are moving, in the words of CERN's Tim Bell, "from pets to cattle".

(mpdehaan: Are we talking about deployment here? Then let's start a deployment section. What does direct/indirect mean? How about not addressing tools in 101 and talking about concepts, so as to make a better tools section? Ansible operates in both push and pull topologies, so I'm guessing that is not what is meant about direct/indirect?)

Chef (adam: I'm biased here, but I would do Chef in 101, puppet and cfengine in 201, but it's because I want junior admins to get better at scripting, not just because I'm a dick.) (Magnus: this goes back to why Ruby will be so much more for new guys coming in today like Perl was for a lot of us in the 90's)

Ansible is a configuration management, deployment, and remote execution tool that uses SSH to address remote machines (though it offers other connection types, including 0mq). It requires no server software nor any remote programs, and works by shipping small modules to remote machines that provide idempotent resource management. While implemented in Python, Ansible uses a basic YAML data language to describe how to orchestrate operations on remote systems.

Ansible can be extended by writing modules in any language you want, though there is some accelerated module writing ability that makes it easier to do them in Python.

To prevent documentation drift, see Ansible documentation site.

SaltStack or just Salt, is a configuration management and remote execution tool written in Python. Salt uses ZeroMQ to manage communication between master and minions, and RSA keys to handle authentication. This chapter will explain the basics on how to get started with it.

Salt is a centralized system, which means there is a main server (also referred here as master) which manages other machines connected to it or itself (also referred here as minions). This topology can be further split using Salt Syndic, please refer to Salt documentation for more details on this topic.

In examples below we will be using the master + 1 minion setup. The approximate time you will need to work through all the content is about 10 minutes.

Prerequisites:

• access to 2 Linux/Solaris/FreeBSD/Windows machines in the same network
• basic understanding of command line instructions
• basic understanding of YAML file format

Salt has a dedicated page on how to get it installed and ready to use, please refer to it after deciding what OS you will be using. These examples are shown on an Ubuntu installation with Salt installed from a project personal package archive.

To set-up the environment you can use virtual machines or real boxes, in the examples we will be using hostnames master and slave to refer to each one.

At this point, you should install the latest version on both machines with the directions provided above, and have a command line session open on both your master and slave machines. You can check what version are you using on master with:

root@master:~# salt --version
salt 0.10.3

and on slave with:

root@slave:~# salt-minion --version
salt-minion 0.10.3

A minimum configuration is required to get the slave server to communicate with master. You will need to tell it what IP address and port master uses. The configuration file can typically be found at :file:`/etc/salt/minion`.

You will need to edit the configuration file directive master: salt replacing salt with master IP address or its hostname/FQDN.

Once done, you will need to restart the service: salt-minion. On most Linux distributions you can execute service salt-minion restart to restart the service.

Authentication keys for master/slave are generated during installation so you don't need to manage those manually, except in case when you want to preseed minions.

To add the slave to minions list, you will have to use the command salt-key on master. Execute salt-key -L to list available minions:

root@master:~# salt-key -L
Unaccepted Keys:
slave
Accepted Keys:
Rejected:

To accept a minion, execute salt-key -a <minion-name>:

root@master:~# salt-key -a slave
Key for slave accepted.

root@master:~# salt-key -L
Unaccepted Keys:
Accepted Keys:
slave
Rejected:

Once the minion is added, you can start managing it by using command salt. For example, to check the communication with slave, you can ping the slave from the master:

root@master:~# salt 'slave*' test.ping
slave: True

In order to understand how Salt does its configuration management on minions, we'll take look at the salt command line tool. Let's take our previous command and inspect the parts of the command:

root@master:~# salt 'slave*' test.ping
                           ^ ^
                     ______| |__________________
                     target  function to execute

target is the minion(s) name. It can represent the exact name or only a part of it followed by a wildcard. For more details on how to match minions please take a look at Salt Globbing.

In order to run target matching by OS, architecture or other identifiers take a look at Salt Grains.

Functions that can be executed are called Salt Modules. These modules are Python or Cython code written to abstract access to CLI or other minion resources. For the full list of modules please take a look this page.

One of the modules provided by Salt, is the cmd module. It has the run method, which accepts a string as an argument. The string is the exact command line which will be executed on the minions and contains both the command name and command's arguments. The result of the command execution will be listed on master with the minion name as prefix.

For example, to run command uname -a on our slave we will execute:

root@master:~# salt slave cmd.run 'uname -a'
slave: Linux slave 2.6.24-27-openvz #1 SMP Fri Mar 12 04:18:54 UTC 2010 i686 GNU/Linux

One of the Salt modules is called state. Its purpose is to manage minions state.

Salt configuration management is fully managed by states, which purpose is to describe a machine behaviour: from what services are running to what software is installed and how it is configured. Salt configuration management files (.sls extension) contain collections of such states written in YAML format.

Salt states make use of modules and represent different module calls organised to achieve a specific purpose/result.

Below you can find an example of such a SLS file, whose purpose is to get Apache Web server installed and running:

apache2:
  pkg:
    - installed
  service.running:
    - require:
      - pkg: apache2

To understand the snippet above, you will need to refer to documentation on states: pkg and service. Basically our state calls methods pkg.installed and service.running with argument apache2. require directive is available for most of the states and describe dependencies if any.

Back to state module, it has a couple of methods to manage these states. In a nutshell the state file form above can be executed using state.sls function. Before we do that, let's take a look where state files reside on the master server.

Salt master server configuration file has a directive named file_roots, it accepts an YAML hash/dictionary as a value, where keys will represent the environment (the default value is base) and values represent a set/array of paths on the file system (the default value is :file:`/srv/salt`).

Now, lets save our state file and try to deploy it.

Ideally you would split state files in directories (so that if there are also other files, say certificates or assets, we keep those organised). The directory layout we will use in our example will look like this:

/srv/salt/
|-- apache
|   `-- init.sls
`-- top.sls

When creating new states, there is a file naming convention. Look at init.sls, it is the default filename to be searched when loading a state. This is similar to Python or default web page name index.html.

So when you create a new directory for a state with an init.sls file in it it translates as the Salt state name and you can refer to it as that. For example, you do not write pkg: new_state.init, write just pkg: new_state.

Now to deploy it, we will use the function state.sls and indicate the state name:

root@master:~# salt slave state.sls apache
slave:
----------
    State: - pkg
    Name:      apache2
    Function:  installed
        Result:    True
        Comment:   Package apache2 installed
        Changes:   apache2.2-bin: {'new': '2.2.14-5ubuntu8.10', 'old': ''}
                   libapr1: {'new': '1.3.8-1ubuntu0.3', 'old': ''}
                   perl-modules: {'new': '5.10.1-8ubuntu2.1', 'old': ''}
                   ssl-cert: {'new': '1.0.23ubuntu2', 'old': ''}
                   apache2-utils: {'new': '2.2.14-5ubuntu8.10', 'old': ''}
                   libaprutil1-ldap: {'new': '1.3.9+dfsg-3ubuntu0.10.04.1', 'old': ''}
                   apache2-mpm-worker: {'new': '2.2.14-5ubuntu8.10', 'old': ''}
                   make: {'new': '3.81-7ubuntu1', 'old': ''}
                   libaprutil1: {'new': '1.3.9+dfsg-3ubuntu0.10.04.1', 'old': ''}
                   apache2: {'new': '2.2.14-5ubuntu8.10', 'old': ''}
                   libcap2: {'new': '1:2.17-2ubuntu1', 'old': ''}
                   libaprutil1-dbd-sqlite3: {'new': '1.3.9+dfsg-3ubuntu0.10.04.1', 'old': ''}
                   libgdbm3: {'new': '1.8.3-9', 'old': ''}
                   perl: {'new': '5.10.1-8ubuntu2.1', 'old': ''}
                   apache2.2-common: {'new': '2.2.14-5ubuntu8.10', 'old': ''}
                   libexpat1: {'new': '2.0.1-7ubuntu1.1', 'old': ''}

----------
    State: - service
    Name:      apache2
    Function:  running
        Result:    True
        Comment:   The service apache2 is already running
        Changes:

You can see from the above that Salt deployed our state to slave and reported changes.

In our state file we indicated that our service requires that the package must be installed. Following the same approach, we can add other requirements like files, other packages or services.

Let's add a new virtual host to our server now using the file state. We can do this by creating a separate state file or re-using the existing one. Since creating a new file will keep code better organised, we will take that approach.

We will create a new sls file with a relevant name, say www_opsschool_org.sls with the content below:

include:
  - apache

extend:
  apache2:
    service:
      - require:
        - file: www_opsschool_org
      - watch:
        - file: www_opsschool_org

www_opsschool_org:
  file.managed:
  - name: /etc/apache2/sites-enabled/www.opsschool.org
  - source: salt://vhosts/conf/www.opsschool.org

Above, we include already described state of the Apache service and extend it to include our configuration file. Notice we use a new directive watch to describe our state as being dependent on what changes the configuration file triggers. This way, if a newer version of the same file is deployed, it should restart the Apache service.

Below is the directory listing of the changes we did:

/srv/salt/
|-- apache
|   `-- init.sls
|-- top.sls
`-- vhosts
    |-- conf
    |   `-- www.opsschool.org
    `-- www_opsschool_org.sls

Using the newly created state file, we can try and deploy our brand new virtual host:

root@master:~# salt slave state.sls vhosts.www_opsschool_org
slave:
----------
    State: - file
    Name:      /etc/apache2/sites-enabled/www.opsschool.org
    Function:  managed
        Result:    True
        Comment:   File /etc/apache2/sites-enabled/www.opsschool.org updated
        Changes:   diff: New file

----------
    State: - pkg
    Name:      apache2
    Function:  installed
        Result:    True
        Comment:   Package apache2 is already installed
        Changes:
----------
    State: - service
    Name:      apache2
    Function:  running
        Result:    True
        Comment:   Started Service apache2
        Changes:   apache2: True

Salt reports another successful deploy and lists the changes as in the example above.

All this time, you were probably wondering why there is a file top.sls and it was never used?! Salt master will search for this file as indicated in the configuration of your install. This file is used to describe the state of all the servers that are being managed and is deployed across all the machines using the function state.highstate.

Let's add our state files to it to describe the high state of the slave.

base:
  'slave*':
    - vhosts.www_opsschool_org

Where base is the default environment containing minion matchers followed by a list of states to be deployed on the matched host.

Now you can execute:

root@master:~# salt slave state.highstate

Salt should output the same results, as nothing changed since the last run. In order to add more services to your slave, feel free to create new states or extend the existing one. A good collection of states that can be used as examples can be found on Github:

• https://github.com/saltstack/salt-states -- Community contributed states
• https://github.com/AppThemes/salt-config-example -- WordPress stack with deployments using Git

.. seealso:: For the full documentation on available states, please see `Salt States documentation <http://salt.readthedocs.org/en/latest/ref/states/all/index.html>`_.