Ubaidillah bin Ziyad: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{Infobox officeholder|name=Ubaidillah bin Ziyad|parents=*[[Ziyad bin Abihi]] (ayah) |
{{Infobox officeholder|name=Ubaidillah bin Ziyad|parents=*[[Ziyad bin Abihi]] (ayah) |
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*Marjanah (ibu)|image=Arab-Sasanian Dirham in the name of Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad.jpg|caption=''[[Dirham]]'' peral dengan nama Ubaidillah|allegiance=[[Kekhalifahan Umayyah]] (673–686)|death_date=Agustus 686|battles={{plainlist| |
*Marjanah (ibu)|image=Arab-Sasanian Dirham in the name of Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad.jpg|caption=''[[Dirham]]'' peral dengan nama Ubaidillah|allegiance=[[Kekhalifahan Umayyah]] (673–686)|death_date=Agustus 686|battles={{plainlist| |
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*[[Penaklukan Transoxiana oleh Muslim]] |
*[[Penaklukan Transoxiana oleh Muslim]] |
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*[[Pertempuran Marj Rahith]] |
*[[Pertempuran Marj Rahith]] |
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*[[Pertempuran Ain al-Wardah]] |
*[[Pertempuran Ain al-Wardah]] |
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*[[Pertempuran |
*[[Pertempuran Khazir]]{{KIA}} |
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}}|office1=Gubernur [[Khurasan]]|successor1=[[Said bin Utsman]]|predecessor1=Ziyad bin Abihi|term1=673–676|office2=Gubernur [[Basra]]|successor2=Abdul Malik bin Abdullah bin 'Amir|predecessor2= |
}}|office1=Gubernur [[Khurasan]]|successor1=[[Said bin Utsman]]|predecessor1=Ziyad bin Abihi|term1=673–676|office2=Gubernur [[Basra]]|successor2=Abdul Malik bin Abdullah bin 'Amir|predecessor2=Abdullah bin Amru bin Ghailan|term2=674/75–684|office3=Gubernur [[Kufah]]|predecessor3=[[An-Nu'man bin Basyir]]|successor3='Amir bin Mas'ud bin Umayyah al-Jumahi|term3=679/680–683/684}} |
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'''ʿUbaidillāh bin Ziyād''' ({{lang-ar|عبيد الله بن زياد}}) adalah seorang [[gubernur]] Umayyah di Basra, Kufah dan Khurasan selama masa pemerintahan khalifah [[Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan]] dan [[Yazid bin Muawiyah]]. |
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Ia menjabat sebagai panglima tentara di bawah khalifah [[Marwan bin al-Hakam]] dan [[Abdul Malik bin Marwan]]. Ubaidillah dikenal karena perannya dalam pembunuhan anggota keluarga [[Ali bin Abi Thalib]] termasuk [[Husain bin Ali]] di [[Pertempuran Karbala]]. |
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| ⚫ | Ia menggantikan ayahnya, Ziyad bin Abihi sebagai gubernur setelah kematiannya pada tahun 673. Selama pemerintahannya, Ubaidillah menekan pemberontakan [[Khawarij]] dan pendukung Ali. Dalam |
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| ⚫ | Ia menggantikan ayahnya, Ziyad bin Abihi sebagai gubernur setelah kematiannya pada tahun 673. Selama pemerintahannya, Ubaidillah menekan pemberontakan [[Khawarij]] dan pendukung Ali. Dalam Pertempuran Karbala selanjutnya pada tahun 680, [[Husain bin Ali]] dan pasukan kecilnya dibunuh oleh pasukan Ubaidillah. Ubaidillah akhirnya diusir dari [[Irak]] oleh bangsawan suku Arab di tengah pemberontakan [[Abdullah bin az-Zubair]]. |
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| ⚫ | Ubaidillah berhasil pergi ke Suriah di mana ia berhasil membujuk [[Marwan bin al-Hakam]] untuk menjabat sebagai khalifah dan membantu membangun kembali Kekhalifahan Umayyah yang hampir runtuh. Setelah itu, ia bertempur dalam [[Pertempuran Marj Rahith]] tahun 684 melawan suku-suku pro-Ibnu Zubair dan membantu membangun kembali pasukan Umayyah. Dengan pasukan ini dia berjuang melawan pemberontak suku [[Qais]] di [[ |
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| ⚫ | Ubaidillah berhasil pergi ke Suriah di mana ia berhasil membujuk [[Marwan bin al-Hakam]] untuk menjabat sebagai khalifah dan membantu membangun kembali Kekhalifahan Umayyah yang hampir runtuh. Setelah itu, ia bertempur dalam [[Pertempuran Marj Rahith]] tahun 684 melawan suku-suku pro-Ibnu az-Zubair dan membantu membangun kembali pasukan Umayyah. Dengan pasukan ini dia berjuang melawan pemberontak suku [[Qais]] di [[al-Jazirah]] sebelum maju melawan pendukung Ali dan pendukung Ibnu az-Zubair di Irak. Namun, dia terbunuh dan pasukannya dikalahkan di [[Pertempuran Khazir]] oleh pasukan [[Ibrahim bin al-Asytar]]. |
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== Kehidupan awal == |
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Ubaidillah adalah putra dari [[Ziyad bin Abihi]] yang asal usul keturunannya tidak jelas; Ziyad lahir di luar nikah dan ayahnya tidak diketahui, sedangkan ibunya adalah selir dari [[Persia]] yang bernama Marjanah.<ref name="Robinson763">Robinson, p. 763.</ref> Ziyad menjabat sebagai Gubernur [[Umayyah]] di Irak dan wilayah timur provinsi tersebut, yang dikenal sebagai [[Khurasan]], pada masa pemerintahan Khalifah [[Muawiyah I]] (memerintah 661–680).<ref>Hasson 2002, p. 519.</ref> |
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== Daftar pustaka == |
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== Sebagai Gubernur Irak dan Khurasan == |
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Ubayd Allah's father prepared Ziyad to succeed him as governor, and indeed, after Ziyad's death in 672/673, Ubayd Allah became governor of Khurasan.<ref name="Robinson763"/> A year or two later, he was also appointed to the governorship of [[Basra]].<ref name="Robinson763"/> According to historian [[Hugh N. Kennedy]], Ubayd Allah was "more hasty and given to the use of force than his father, but a man whose devotion to the Umayyad cause could not have been doubted".<ref>Kennedy 2004, p. 74.</ref> |
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In 674 he crossed the [[Amu Darya]] and defeated the forces of the ruler of [[Bukhara]] in the first known invasion of the city by Muslim Arabs.<ref>Gibb 2007, pp. 17–19.</ref> From at least 674 and 675, Ubayd Allah had coins struck in his name in Khurasan and Basra, respectively.<ref name="Robinson763"/> They were based on [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] coinage and written in [[Pahlavi script]].<ref name="Robinson763"/> The mints were located in Basra, Darabjird, [[Maysan Governorate|Maysan]], [[Narmashir]], Jayy and, to a lesser extent, [[Kufa]].<ref name="Robinson763"/> The latter was attached to Ubayd Allah's governorship in 679/680, giving him full control of Iraq.<ref name="Robinson763"/> |
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===Suppression of the Shia of Ali=== |
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Mu'awiya died in 680 and was succeeded by his son [[Yazid I]]. Mu'awiya's designation of his son was an unprecedented act and shocked many in the Muslim community, particularly the Arab nobility of Kufa.<ref name="Kennedy77">Kennedy 2004, p. 77.</ref> They long sympathized with Caliph [[Ali]], Mu'awiya's former rival, and Ali's family.<ref name="Kennedy77"/> One of Ali's sons, [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn]] dispatched his cousin [[Muslim ibn Aqil]] to Kufa to set the stage for Husayn's accession to the caliphate.<ref name="Donner178">Donner 2010, p. 178.</ref><ref name="Wellhausen147">Wellhausen 1927, pp. 146–147.</ref> Ibn Aqil garnered significant support and was hosted by a prominent pro-[[Alid]] nobleman.<ref name="Donner178"/><ref name="Wellhausen147"/> Ubayd Allah became aware of Ibn Aqil's activities, prompting the latter to launch a premature assault against the governor.<ref name="Wellhausen147"/> Ubayd Allah was holed up in his palace, but thirty men from his ''[[shurta]]'' (security forces) fended off Ibn Aqil's partisans, allowing Ubayd Allah to escape.<ref>Kennedy 2001, p. 13.</ref> He then persuaded many Kufan noblemen to back him against Ibn Aqil, who was abandoned by his supporters and slain on 10 September 680.<ref name="Wellhausen147"/><ref>Crone 1980, p. 32.</ref> |
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Husayn had already been en route to Kufa from [[Medina]] when he received news of Ibn Aqil's execution.<ref name="Donner178"/><ref name="Wellhausen147"/> Ubayd Allah was prepared for Husayn's arrival and sent troops to intercept him.<ref name="Donner178"/> They prevented Husayn and his small retinue from reaching the watered areas of the province.<ref name="Kennedy77"/> The two sides negotiated for weeks, but Ubayd Allah refused Husayn entry into Kufa while Husayn refused to recognize Yazid's caliphate or return to Arabia.<ref name="Donner178"/> In the end, a short battle was fought at [[Karbala]] on 10 October 680, in which Husayn and nearly all of his partisans were slain.<ref name="Kennedy77"/><ref name="Donner178"/><ref name="Wellhausen147"/> Husayn had never received the expected backing of his Kufan sympathizers, but the latter's resentment festered as a result of his death.<ref name="Kennedy77"/> The slaying of Husayn, a grandson of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], perturbed many Muslims.<ref name="Kennedy77"/> |
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== Role in Umayyad succession == |
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The death of Yazid in 683 led to a major leadership crisis in the caliphate, and "the power of his house seemed to collapse everywhere", in the words of Orientalist [[Julius Wellhausen]].<ref name="Wellhausen169">Wellhausen 1927, p. 169.</ref> Ubayd Allah initially neglected to support Yazid's son and designated successor, [[Mu'awiyah II|Mu'awiya II]] and secured oaths of allegiance to himself from the Basran Arab nobility.<ref name="Wellhausen169"/> In a speech addressed to them, he emphasized his connection to Basra and promised to maintain the wealth of the city's inhabitants.<ref name="Kennedy78">Kennedy 2004, p. 78.</ref> Nonetheless, the Basrans turned against him, forcing him to abandon his palace.<ref name="Kennedy78"/><ref name="Madelung301">Madelung 1981, p. 301.</ref> He was replaced by Abd Allah ibn al-Harith, a member of the [[Banu Hashim]].<ref name="Madelung301"/> Ubayd Allah took refuge with the [[Azd]]i chieftain Mas'ud ibn Amr in late 683 or early 684.<ref name="Madelung301"/> He plotted to restore his governorship by encouraging Mas'ud to form an alliance of the Yamani and Rabi'a tribes against his opponents from the [[Banu Tamim]] and Ibn al-Harith.<ref name="Madelung303">Madelung 1981, p. 303.</ref> Mas'ud took to the pulpit of Basra's mosque to stir up the revolt, but Tamimi tribesmen, under Ibn al-Harith's direction, stormed the building and killed Mas'ud.<ref name="Madelung303"/> After Mas'ud's death, Ubayd Allah fled the city practically alone in March 684, taking the Syrian desert route to [[Hawran]] or [[Palmyra]].<ref name="Kennedy78"/><ref name="Madelung301"/><ref>Wellhausen 1927, p. 175.</ref> In his rush to escape, he left his wife and family behind.<ref name="Madelung303"/> |
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When Ubayd Allah arrived in Syria, he found it in political disarray; Caliph Mu'awiya II had died weeks into his rule and a power vacuum ensued with many Syrian noblemen, particularly from the [[Qays]]i tribes, switching allegiance to the rival, Mecca-based caliphate of [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]].<ref name="Kennedy78"/> The latter had expelled the Umayyads from the [[Hejaz]] and among the exiles to Syria was [[Marwan I|Marwan ibn al-Hakam]], an Umayyad elder.<ref>Kennedy 2004, pp. 78–79.</ref> Ubayd Allah persuaded Marwan, who was preparing to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr's sovereignty, to enter his candidacy as Mu'awiya II's successor.<ref name="Kennedy79">Kennedy 2004, p. 79.</ref> The Umayyads' principal Syrian allies, the [[Banu Kalb]], had sought to maintain Umayyad rule and nominated Mu'awiya II's half-brother Khalid as caliph.<ref name="Kennedy79"/> However, the other pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes viewed Khalid as too young and inexperienced, and rallied around Marwan, who was ultimately chosen as caliph.<ref name="Kennedy79"/> |
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== Kampanye militer di Suriah dan Al-Jazirah == |
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Ubaidillah berperang untuk mendukung Marwan dan sekutu sukunya melawan suku-suku Qais dibawah pimpinan [[Adh-Dhahhak bin Qais]], seorang gubernur [[Jund Dimasyq|Damaskus]], pada [[Pertempuran Marj Rahith]] bulan Agustus 684.<ref name="Robinson763"/> Pasukan Qais dikalahkan dan Adh-Dhahhak terbunuh. Ubayd Allah was put in command of Marwan's army which, during Marj Rahit, consisted 6,000 men from a handful of loyalist tribes.<ref name="Kennedy32">Kennedy 2001, p. 32.</ref> According to Kennedy, Ubayd Allah "clearly intended to rebuild the Syrian army which had served Mu'awiya and Yazid I so well".<ref name="Kennedy32"/> In the aftermath of Marj Rahit, Ubayd Allah oversaw campaigns against rebel Qaysi tribes for Marwan and his son and successor [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] (r. 685–705) in the [[Al-Jazira (caliphal province)|Jazira]].<ref name="Robinson763"/> However, Marwan's forces were too little to assert Umayyad rule throughout the caliphate.<ref name="Kennedy32"/> Thus, Ubayd Allah expanded recruitment to include various Qaysi tribes.<ref name="Kennedy32"/> He placed [[Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni]] of [[Kindah]] as his second-in-command, and Shurahbil ibn Dhi'l-Kila' of [[Himyar]], Adham ibn Muhriz of [[Bahila]], al-Rabi'a ibn Mukhariq of [[Banu Ghani]] and Jabala ibn Abd Allah of [[Khath'am]] as deputy commanders.<ref name="Kennedy32"/> Other than Husayn ibn Numayr, all the other commanders were either Qaysi or had earlier supported al-Dahhak against Marwan.<ref name="Kennedy32"/> |
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In January 685, as Ubayd Allah was in [[Manbij]] preparing for the Umayyad reconquest of Iraq, Husayn ibn Numayr defeated the pro-Alid Penitents at the [[Battle of Ayn al-Warda]].<ref name="Robinson763"/><ref name="Wellhausen185">Wellhausen 1927, p. 185.</ref> Ubayd Allah had been promised by Marwan the governorship over all of the lands he could conquer from the Alids and Ibn al-Zubayr, and he may have been sanctioned to plunder Kufa.<ref name="Wellhausen185"/> For the following year, Ubayd Allah was bogged down in battles with the Qaysi tribes of Jazira led by [[Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi]].<ref name="Wellhausen185"/> By 686, Ubayd Allah's army numbered some 60,000 troops.<ref name="Kennedy32"/> |
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By the time Ubayd Allah's army approached [[Mosul]] toward Iraq, the Zubayrids under [[Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr]] had established themselves in Basra while [[Al-Mukhtar|al-Mukhtar ibn Ubayd]] took control of Kufa in the name of the Alid [[Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah|Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya]].<ref name="Kennedy81">Kennedy 2004, p. 81.</ref> Al-Mukhtar dispatched [[Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar]] and an army composed largely of non-Arab freedmen to confront Ubayd Allah.<ref name="Kennedy81"/> The latter fended off the first wave of al-Mukhtar's troops, and proceeded to face off Ibn al-Ashtar at the [[Khazir River]].<ref name="Kennedy81"/> In the ensuing [[Battle of Khazir]], the Umayyad army was routed and Ubayd Allah was slain by Ibn al-Ashtar.<ref name="Kennedy81"/> His commanders Husayn, Shurahbil and al-Rabi'a were also killed.<ref name="Kennedy81"/> With Ubayd Allah's death, Caliph Abd al-Malik halted further advances against Iraq until 691.<ref name="Kennedy81"/> |
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== Lihat pula == |
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*[[Hani bin Urwah]] |
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*[[Syamr bin Dzil Jausyan]] |
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== Referensi == |
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{{reflist}} |
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== Bacaan lanjut == |
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*{{cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian Brock|title=North Mesopotamia in the late Seventh Century: Book XV of [[John Bar Penkāyē]]'s Rīš Mellē|journal=[[Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam]]|volume=9|date=1987|pages=51–75|issn=0334-4118}} |
*{{cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian Brock|title=North Mesopotamia in the late Seventh Century: Book XV of [[John Bar Penkāyē]]'s Rīš Mellē|journal=[[Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam]]|volume=9|date=1987|pages=51–75|issn=0334-4118}} |
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*{{Slaves on Horses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOu7XGjKmkAC&pg=PA93}} |
*{{Slaves on Horses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOu7XGjKmkAC&pg=PA93}} |
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== Pranala luar == |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051118013031/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/islam/arab_sas/arabsasanian2.html |
* {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118013031/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/islam/arab_sas/arabsasanian2.html Gubernur Umayyah al-Basra dan al-Kufah] |
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*[http://www.san.beck.org/AB13-MuhammadandIslam.html Muhammad |
* {{en}} [http://www.san.beck.org/AB13-MuhammadandIslam.html Muhammad dan Penaklukan Islam] |
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{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Khorasan Raya|Khurasan]]|before=[[Ziyad bin Abihi]]|after=[[Said bin Utsman]]|years= |
{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Khorasan Raya|Khurasan]]|before=[[Ziyad bin Abihi]]|after=[[Said bin Utsman]]|years=673–676}} |
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{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Basra]]|before= |
{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Basra]]|before=Abdullah bin Amru bin Ghailan|after=Abdul Malik bin Abdullah bin 'Amir|years=674/675–684}} |
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{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Kufah]]|before=An-Nu'man bin Basyir |
{{succession box|title=Gubernur [[Kufah]]|before=An-Nu'man bin Basyir|after='Amir bin Mas'ud bin Umayyah al-Jumahi|years=679/680–683/684}} |
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Revisi terkini sejak 9 Juni 2024 07.57
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Ubaidillah bin Ziyad | |
|---|---|
 Dirham peral dengan nama Ubaidillah | |
| Gubernur Khurasan | |
| Masa jabatan 673–676 | |
| Gubernur Basra | |
| Masa jabatan 674/75–684 | |
 Pendahulu Abdullah bin Amru bin Ghailan Pengganti Abdul Malik bin Abdullah bin 'Amir  | |
| Gubernur Kufah | |
| Masa jabatan 679/680–683/684 | |
| Informasi pribadi | |
| Meninggal | Agustus 686 |
| Orang tua |
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| Karier militer | |
| Pihak | Kekhalifahan Umayyah (673–686) |
| Pertempuran/perang | |
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ʿUbaidillāh bin Ziyād (bahasa Arab: عبيد الله بن زياد) adalah seorang gubernur Umayyah di Basra, Kufah dan Khurasan selama masa pemerintahan khalifah Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan dan Yazid bin Muawiyah.
Ia menjabat sebagai panglima tentara di bawah khalifah Marwan bin al-Hakam dan Abdul Malik bin Marwan. Ubaidillah dikenal karena perannya dalam pembunuhan anggota keluarga Ali bin Abi Thalib termasuk Husain bin Ali di Pertempuran Karbala.
Ia menggantikan ayahnya, Ziyad bin Abihi sebagai gubernur setelah kematiannya pada tahun 673. Selama pemerintahannya, Ubaidillah menekan pemberontakan Khawarij dan pendukung Ali. Dalam Pertempuran Karbala selanjutnya pada tahun 680, Husain bin Ali dan pasukan kecilnya dibunuh oleh pasukan Ubaidillah. Ubaidillah akhirnya diusir dari Irak oleh bangsawan suku Arab di tengah pemberontakan Abdullah bin az-Zubair.
Ubaidillah berhasil pergi ke Suriah di mana ia berhasil membujuk Marwan bin al-Hakam untuk menjabat sebagai khalifah dan membantu membangun kembali Kekhalifahan Umayyah yang hampir runtuh. Setelah itu, ia bertempur dalam Pertempuran Marj Rahith tahun 684 melawan suku-suku pro-Ibnu az-Zubair dan membantu membangun kembali pasukan Umayyah. Dengan pasukan ini dia berjuang melawan pemberontak suku Qais di al-Jazirah sebelum maju melawan pendukung Ali dan pendukung Ibnu az-Zubair di Irak. Namun, dia terbunuh dan pasukannya dikalahkan di Pertempuran Khazir oleh pasukan Ibrahim bin al-Asytar.
Daftar pustaka
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Brock, Sebastian P. (1987). "North Mesopotamia in the late Seventh Century: Book XV of John Bar Penkāyē's Rīš Mellē". Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 9: 51–75. ISSN 0334-4118.
- Crone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52940-9.
- Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05097-6.
- Gibb, H. A. R. (2013) [1923]. The Arab Conquests in Central Asia. Read Books. ISBN 1-4067-5239-8.
- Hasson, I. (2002). "Ziyād b. Abiḥī". Dalam Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. The Encyclopedia of Islam. XI: W–Z (edisi ke-new). Leiden and New York: Brill. hlm. 519–522. ISBN 90-04-12756-9.
- Kennedy, Hugh N. (2001). The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State (edisi ke-Second). Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25092-7.
- Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (edisi ke-Second). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
- Madelung, Wifred (October 1981). "ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr and the Mahdi". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 4 (1): 291–305. ISSN 0022-2968. JSTOR 544603.
- Robinson, C. F. (2000). "ʿUbayd Allāh b. Ziyād". Dalam Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Volume X: T–U (edisi ke-2). Leiden: E. J. Brill. hlm. 763–764. ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7.
- Wellhausen, Julius (1927). The Arab Kingdom and its Fall. Diterjemahkan oleh Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. OCLC 752790641.
Pranala luar
[sunting | sunting sumber]- (Inggris) Gubernur Umayyah al-Basra dan al-Kufah
- (Inggris) Muhammad dan Penaklukan Islam
| Didahului oleh: Ziyad bin Abihi |
Gubernur Khurasan 673–676 |
Diteruskan oleh: Said bin Utsman |
| Didahului oleh: Abdullah bin Amru bin Ghailan |
Gubernur Basra 674/675–684 |
Diteruskan oleh: Abdul Malik bin Abdullah bin 'Amir |
| Didahului oleh: An-Nu'man bin Basyir |
Gubernur Kufah 679/680–683/684 |
Diteruskan oleh: 'Amir bin Mas'ud bin Umayyah al-Jumahi |
 | Artikel bertopik biografi tokoh ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya. |