Naseljavanje Amerikâ

Naseljavanje Amerikâ počelo je kad su paleolitski lovci-sakupljači prispeli u Severnu Ameriku iz severnoazijskih Mamutskih stepa preko beringijskog kopnenog mosta, koja se formirao između severoistočnog Sibira i zapadne Aljaske zbog snižavanja nivoa mora tokom poslednjeg ledničkog maksimuma.^[1] Ove populacije su se proširile južno od Laurentidine ledene ploče i brzo se raširile na područje Severne i Južne Amerike, pre 14.000 godina.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Najranije populacije u Americi, pre otprilike 10.000 godina, poznate su kao Paleoindijanci.

Karta najranijih sigurno datiranih lokacija koja pokazuju prisustvo ljudi u Americi, 16–13 ka za Severnu Ameriku i 15–11 ka za Južnu Ameriku.

Oljuđivanje Amerike je dugogodišnje otvoreno pitanje, i dok su napredak u arheologiji, pleistocenskoj geologiji, fizičkoj antropologiji i DNK analizi postupno bacali sve više svetla na temu, značajna pitanja ostaju nerešena.^[6] Iako postoji opšte saglasnost da su Amerike prvo naseljene iz Azije, obrazac migracije, hronologija i mesta porekla u Evroaziji naroda koji su migrirali u Ameriku ostaju nejasni.^[3]

Prevladavajući modeli migracija ocrtavaju različite vremenske okvire za azijsku migraciju iz Beringovog tesnaca i dalje širenje osnivačke populacije širom kontinenta.^[7] Autohtoni narodi Amerike bili su povezani sa sibirskim populacijama lingvističkim faktorima, raspodelom krvnih tipova i genetskom kompozicijom, kao što je prikazano molekularnim podacima, poput DNK.^[8]^[9]

„Prva teorija Klovisa” se odnosi na hipotezu iz 1950-ih da kultura Klovisa predstavlja najranije ljudsko prisustvo u Americi, počevši od pre oko 13.000 godina; dokazi o kulturama pre Klovisa akumulirani su od 2000. godine, što je potisnulo moguće vreme prvog oljuđavanja Amerike na pre približno 13.200-15.500 godina.^[10]^[11]

Životna sredina tokom zadnjeg pleistocena

Za uvod u tehnike radiougljeničnog datiranja koje koriste arheolozi i geolozi, pogledajte metod radioaktivnog ugljenika.

Pojavljivanje i potapanje Beringije

Potapanje Beringovog kopnenog mosta sa podizanjem nivoa mora nakon poslednjeg glacijalnog maksimuma (LGM)

Tokom Viskonsinske glacijacije, varirajuće porcije Zemljine vode bile su zadržane kao glečerski led. Kako se voda akumulirala u glečerima, količina vode u okeanima se smanjivala, što je rezultiralo snižavanjem globalnog nivoa mora. Varijacija nivoa mora tokom vremena rekonstruisana je korišćenjem kiseonične izotopske analize jezgara iz dubokog mora, datiranja morskih terasa i uzorkovanjem izotopa kiseonika visoke rezolucije iz okeanskih bazena i modernih ledenih kapa. Pad eustatičkog nivoa mora za oko 60 m do 120 m niže od današnjih nivoa, počevši od pre oko 30.000 godina, stvorio je Beringiju, trajno i opsežno geografsko obeležje koji povezuje Sibir sa Aljaskom.^[12] S porastom nivoa mora nakon poslednjeg ledenog maksimuma (LGM), Beringijski kopneni most ponovo je potopljen. Procene konačnog ponovnog potapanja Beringijskog kopnenog mosta zasnovane isključivo na sadašnjoj batimetriji Beringovog tesnaca i krivoj eustatskih nivoa mora stavljaju taj događaj na pre oko 11.000 godina. Tekuća istraživanja koja su rekonstruisala Beringijsku paleogeografiju tokom deglaciacije mogla bi promeniti tu procenu, a moguća ranija potapanja mogla bi dodatno ograničiti modele migracije ljudi u Severnu Ameriku.^[12]

Reference

^ Pringle, Heather (8. 3. 2017). „What Happens When an Archaeologist Challenges Mainstream Scientific Thinking?”. Smithsonian. Приступљено 13. 10. 2019.
^ Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. стр. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1.
^ ^а ^б Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). „The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas” (PDF). Science. 319 (5869): 1497—1502. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.9315  . PMID 18339930. doi:10.1126/science.1153569. Архивирано из оригинала 2. 1. 2014. г. Приступљено 5. 2. 2010.
^ Zimmer, Carl (3. 1. 2018). „In the Bones of a Buried Child, Signs of a Massive Human Migration to the Americas”. The New York Times. Приступљено 3. 1. 2018.
^ Moreno-Mayer, J. Victor; et al. (2018). „Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans”. Nature. 553 (7687): 203—07. PMID 29323294. doi:10.1038/nature25173.
^ Waguespack, Nicole (2012). „Early Paleoindians, from Colonization to Folsom”. Ур.: Timothy R. Pauketat. The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. стр. 86—95. ISBN 978-0-19-538011-8.
^ Cummings, Vicki; Jordan, Peter; Zvelebil, Marek (24. 4. 2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press Oxford. стр. 572. ISBN 978-0-19-102526-6.
^ Ash, Patricia J.; Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. стр. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7.
^ Roberts, Alice (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. стр. 101—03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0.
^ Gremillion, David H.; Auton, Adam; Falush, Daniel (25. 9. 2008). „Archaeolog: Pre Siberian Human Migration to America: Possible validation by HTLV-1 mutation analysis”. PLoS Genetics. 4 (5): e1000078. PMC 2367454  . PMID 18497854. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000078. Архивирано из оригинала 10. 7. 2009. г. Приступљено 12. 10. 2010.
^ Waters, M. R.; Forman, S. L.; Jennings, T. A.; Nordt, L. C.; Driese, S. G.; Feinberg, J. M.; Keene, J. L.; Halligan, J.; Lindquist, A.; Pierson, J.; Hallmark, C. T.; Collins, M. B.; Wiederhold, J. E. (24. 3. 2011). „The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas”. Science. 331 (6024): 1599—1603. PMID 21436451. doi:10.1126/science.1201855.
^ ^а ^б Brigham-Grette, Julie; Lozhkin, Anatoly V.; Anderson, Patricia M.; Glushkova, Olga Y. (16. 9. 2004). „Western Beringia before and during the Last Glacial Maximum (Chapter 2)”. in Madsen, David B. (editor) Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum, University of Utah Press, 2004, 486p. ISBN 978-0-87480-786-8. ISBN 9780874807868.

Literatura

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Bradley, B.; Stanford, D. (2006). „The Solutrean-Clovis connection: reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel”. World Archaeology. 38 (4): 704—714. JSTOR 40024066. doi:10.1080/00438240601022001.
Dennis J. Stanford; Bruce Bradely (2012). Pre-Clovis First Americans: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
Dennis J. Stanford; Bruce A. Bradley (2012). Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
Dixon, E. James. Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico Press. 1993.
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Erlandson, Jon M. Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast. Plenum Press. 1994.
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Erlandson, Jon. M.; Graham, M. H.; Bourque, Bruce J.; Corbett, Debra; Estes, James A.; Steneck, R. S. (2007). „The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, The Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas”. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 2 (2): 161—174. doi:10.1080/15564890701628612.
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Greenman, E. F. (1963). „The Upper Palaeolithic and the New World”. Current Anthropology. 4: 41—66. doi:10.1086/200337.
Hey, Jody (2005). „On the Number of New World Founders: A Population Genetic Portrait of the Peopling of the Americas”. PLOS Biology. 3 (6): e193. PMC 1131883  . PMID 15898833. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030193.
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Spoljašnje veze

The Paleoindian Database – The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology.
"The first Americans: How and when were the Americas populated?", Earth, January 2016
"When Did Humans Come to the Americas?" – Smithsonian Magazine February 2013 Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (9. децембар 2013)
The Paleoindian Period – United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service
Shepard Krech III, Paleoindians and the Great Pleistocene Die-Off – American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Humanities Center, 2008.
Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) на сајту YouTube – by Spencer Wells – PBS and National Geographic Channel, 2003 – 120 Minutes, UPC/EAN: 841887001267

[Smithsonian-1] Pringle, Heather (8. 3. 2017). „What Happens When an Archaeologist Challenges Mainstream Scientific Thinking?”. Smithsonian. Приступљено 13. 10. 2019.

[FaganDurrani2016-2] Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. стр. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1.

[Goebel-3] а ^б Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). „The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas” (PDF). Science. 319 (5869): 1497—1502. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.9315  . PMID 18339930. doi:10.1126/science.1153569. Архивирано из оригинала 2. 1. 2014. г. Приступљено 5. 2. 2010.

[NYT-20180103-4] Zimmer, Carl (3. 1. 2018). „In the Bones of a Buried Child, Signs of a Massive Human Migration to the Americas”. The New York Times. Приступљено 3. 1. 2018.

[NAT-20180103-5] Moreno-Mayer, J. Victor; et al. (2018). „Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans”. Nature. 553 (7687): 203—07. PMID 29323294. doi:10.1038/nature25173.

[Pauketat2012-6] Waguespack, Nicole (2012). „Early Paleoindians, from Colonization to Folsom”. Ур.: Timothy R. Pauketat. The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. стр. 86—95. ISBN 978-0-19-538011-8.

[CummingsJordan2014-7] Cummings, Vicki; Jordan, Peter; Zvelebil, Marek (24. 4. 2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press Oxford. стр. 572. ISBN 978-0-19-102526-6.

[AshRobinson2011-8] Ash, Patricia J.; Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. стр. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7.

[Roberts2010-9] Roberts, Alice (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. стр. 101—03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0.

[:0-10] Gremillion, David H.; Auton, Adam; Falush, Daniel (25. 9. 2008). „Archaeolog: Pre Siberian Human Migration to America: Possible validation by HTLV-1 mutation analysis”. PLoS Genetics. 4 (5): e1000078. PMC 2367454  . PMID 18497854. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000078. Архивирано из оригинала 10. 7. 2009. г. Приступљено 12. 10. 2010.

[11] Waters, M. R.; Forman, S. L.; Jennings, T. A.; Nordt, L. C.; Driese, S. G.; Feinberg, J. M.; Keene, J. L.; Halligan, J.; Lindquist, A.; Pierson, J.; Hallmark, C. T.; Collins, M. B.; Wiederhold, J. E. (24. 3. 2011). „The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas”. Science. 331 (6024): 1599—1603. PMID 21436451. doi:10.1126/science.1201855.

[Brighametal2004-12] а ^б Brigham-Grette, Julie; Lozhkin, Anatoly V.; Anderson, Patricia M.; Glushkova, Olga Y. (16. 9. 2004). „Western Beringia before and during the Last Glacial Maximum (Chapter 2)”. in Madsen, David B. (editor) Entering America: Northeast Asia and Beringia Before the Last Glacial Maximum, University of Utah Press, 2004, 486p. ISBN 978-0-87480-786-8. ISBN 9780874807868.

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