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Poke (dish)

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Poke and rice
Poke made with tuna, soy sauce, Hawaiian sea salt, green onions, Maui onions, rice, and limu
Place of originAncient Hawaii[1][2]
Region or stateHawaii[1][2]
Main ingredientstuna, sea salt, soy sauce, inamona, sesame oil, limu seaweed, chili pepper
Similar dishes'Ota 'ika, kinilaw, kelaguen, hinava, ceviche, lomi salmon, lomi oio
Tako (octopus) poke or heʻe poke with sesame seed oil, crushed chili, and sea salt
Poke bowl, Maui, Hawaii
Ahi poke made with tuna, green onions, chili peppers, sea salt, soy sauce, sesame oil, roasted kukui nut (candlenut), and limu, served on a bed of red cabbage

Poke /ˈpoʊkeɪ/ (Hawaiian for "to slice" or "cut crosswise into pieces";[3][4] sometimes anglicised as poké to aid pronunciation as two syllables)[5][6][7] is diced raw fish served either as an appetizer or a main course.[8][9]

History

See also: Lomi salmon

Methods of fishing in ancient Hawaii were hand catching, snaring, spearing, basket trapping, netting, hook and line fishing, and poisoning.[10] Most fish were cultivated in large fishponds or caught near shore in shallow waters and reefs. Fishing in deep sea waters for tuna was known but primarily done by chiefs of lower rank or a professional commoner using the hook and line method.[11]

Poke began as cut-offs from their catch to serve as a snack.[12][13] Fish was preferably eaten for immediate consumption, raw with some alaea salt, or inamona, and sometimes seasoned with blood from the gills.[14][15][16] A typical relish was made of inamona mixed with dried ʻalaʻala (octopus liver) and Hawaiian salt. The poke was accompanied with limu and a large bowl of poi.[17]

When Captain James Cook arrived in 1778, he brought along with him onion seeds.[18] He would later be followed in the 1790s, Spanish horticulturist Francisco de Paula Marin who was the first to successfully cultivate and raise tomatoes. De Paula Marin would further popularize the planting of onions.[19] Maui onions would become a popular accompaniment and common ingredient in traditional poke.

In the early 1800s, Hawaiians were first introduced to salmon, as contract laborers sent to the Pacific Northwest. Salmon would have likely been traditionally prepared as poke which would later evolve into lomi salmon.[17]

Beginning in the mid-19th century, immigrants from China and Japan moved to the islands as plantation laborers, bringing with them foods that would be commonly used in modern poke such as soy sauce and sesame oil.[20][21][22]

Tuna fishing has been important in Pacific Island countries for centuries, but prior to 1900 this activity was restricted to small-scale fishing, mainly using canoes just outside the reef.[23] Between the 1920s and 1930s, almost all the fishing vessels in Hawaiian waters belonged to the Japanese, primarily longline fishing for albacore and skipjack tuna.[24] Most of these tuna would be canned for export, and some would be reserved fresh for the local market.[25] By the 1970s, the increasing affluence of the Japanese consumer created greater demand for sashimi grade tuna.[23]

An increase in yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna landing between the 1970s and 1980s resulted in competition for the fresh tuna market, reducing the available market for skipjack tuna. Yellowfin and bigeye tuna are preferred over skipjack tuna for sashimi in the export markets. Skipjack tuna is usually priced lower on average but is widely appreciated by locals. In 1985, the average price for yellowfin tuna was 26% higher than bigeye tuna, increasing to 58% by 1991. Flash-frozen skipjack and yellowfin tuna imported to Hawaii from Japan also competes with the Hawaii fishery for a share of the local market.[26] According to the food historian Rachel Laudan, the present form of poke became popular around the 1970s.[2]

In Hawaii, grocery chains, including mainland chains, have dedicated counters and display cases in the seafood section for poke where it is sold by weight. They are also sold in standalone shops, or at the fish market, and sometimes at a few convenience stores. Locally, a "poke bowl" which often meant poke served over cooked rice rather than what was being served outside of Hawaii around 2010.[27]

Ingredients

Common fish found in Hawaiian waters for poke include (alternate Japanese names are indicated in parentheses)[28][29][30]:

The Japanese share with the Hawaiians a strong fishing heritage so much so that fish are often recognized by both their Hawaiian and Japanese names. However, it also reemphasizes that deep sea fishing was not an ordinary practice to the ancient Hawaiians.[39][40] Many other fish not listed may still be eaten raw and prepared for poke, but are not often commercially viable to be sold solely for poke such as reef fish like hīnālea or akule which are often too small, may still carry the risk of parasitic tapeworm like ʻamaʻama, or game fish like ulua, ʻulaʻula koaʻe (onaga), or ʻopakapaka which are prize catches.[15][41][42][43][44]

Most shellfish, including octopus, can be safely consumed raw with caution but are normally cooked (or at least cured) especially when being sold commercially as poke.[45][46][47][48][49][50] Farmed fish such as Japanese amberjack (hamachi), Kona kampachi (kanpachi), and salmon are hugely popular.[51][52] Imitation crab (kanikama) is also common, along with tofu a common vegetarian option.

While the traditional relish of inamona, alaea salt, and limu is available in some places, the most common flavor profile today is simply soy sauce and sesame oil. Common additions include Maui onions and scallions, and limu. Sriracha and mayonnaise are the base for the popular "spicy ahi". Other additions include oyster sauce, chili pepper or crushed red pepper, tobiko (or masago), chopped kimchi, ginger, shredded imitation crab, toasted sesame seeds, and/or wasabi (or hot mustard).[53] Poke based on the California roll added avocado to the roster.[8] Around 2020, the ginger-scallion condiment used in the Chinese dish cold ginger chicken called geung yung has become a mildly popular poke flavor.[54]

Poke found outside of Hawaii usually include ponzu, teriyaki, soy sauce, sriracha, and mayonnaise sauces. Additions of avocado, mushrooms, fried onions, jalapeño, cilantro, pineapple, cucumber, edamame, green onions, and a variety of other vegetables may be available. The dish is normally made to order, whereas in Hawaii it is made in bulk and left to marinate. A variety of fish may be available, with ahi tuna, and yellowtail, salmon, octopus, crab, and imitation crab as common additional choices. An option to add a base of cooked rice is common.

Octopus (heʻe) poke with tomatoes, green onion, Maui onion, soy sauce, sesame oil, sea salt, and chili pepper

Poke became increasingly popular in North America starting in 2012.[55][56][57][58][59][60] From 2014 to mid-2016, "the number of Hawaiian restaurants on Foursquare, which includes those that serve poke," doubled, going from 342 to 700.[55] These restaurants serve both traditional and modern versions of the dish. The modern version is sometimes called poké bowl and may have the ingredients arranged in a grouped way rather than mixed. Contemporary poke restaurants are mostly—but not exclusively—fast casual style restaurants where the dish is fully customizable from the base to the marinade on the fish.

There is a three-day "I Love Poke" festival held in San Diego yearly to celebrate the dish and its many variations.[61] There is also an annual poke festival in Kauai hosted by award-winning chef Sam Choy, where celebrity chefs judge poke recipes and select the best dish.[62]

Similar dishes

Raw fish dishes are not uncommon. Common throughout Oceania is ota ika or poisson cru. In Europe, fish carpaccio and tartare, Korean hoe-deopbap, Latin America ceviche, and Japanese sashimi. In the Philippines you have kinilaw and kilawin where it is known as kelaguen in Guam. In Inuit cuisine, fish was best eaten raw.

The Ilocano dish poqui poqui, a scrambled egg dish with grilled eggplants and tomatoes, likely derived its name from poke, from returning Ilocano sugarcane workers from Hawaii in the early 1900s.[63][64]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Matt Dean Pettit (10 April 2018). The Great Shellfish Cookbook: From Sea to Table: More than 100 Recipes to Cook at Home. Appetite by Random House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-14-753058-5.
  2. ^ a b c Laudan, Rachel (1996). The Food of Paradise: Exploring Hawaii's Culinary Heritage. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 9780824817787. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
  3. ^ Martha Cheng (24 January 2017). The Poke Cookbook: The Freshest Way to Eat Fish. Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony/Rodale. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-451-49807-6.
  4. ^ Mary Kawena Pukui; Samuel Hoyt Elbert (2003). "lookup of poke". in Hawaiian Dictionary. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library, University of Hawaii Press.
  5. ^ Noguchi, Mark. "A Conflicted Chef From Hawaii Reacts to the Mainland Poke Bowl Trend". First We Feast. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  6. ^ Tan, Rachel. "6 Things To Know About Hawaiian Poke". Michelin Guide. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  7. ^ Cheng, Martha. "How the Hawaiian poke bowl became the world's new fast food". Hawai'i Magazine. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
  8. ^ a b Talwar, Kalei (17 July 2009). "Make Hawaii-style ahi poke wherever you are. Here's a recipe". Hawaii Magazine. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
  9. ^ Mishan, Ligaya (2018-01-08). "Home to Hawaii in Search of Poke". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
  10. ^ "Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites (Chapter 1)". www.nps.gov.
  11. ^ Titcomb, Margaret (1972). Native Use of Fish in Hawaii. The University Press of Hawaii. p. 7.
  12. ^ "Hawaiian Ahi Tuna Poke Recipe and History, How To Make Poke, Whats Cooking America". whatscookingamerica.net. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
  13. ^ "How Did Ancient Hawaiians Fish?". KONA FISHING CHARTERS. 12 November 2015.
  14. ^ Holland, Jerald J. (1971). Land and Livelihood: The Kona Coast About 1825. University of Hawaii. p. 31.
  15. ^ a b "Dried Akule - Kaʻiwakīloumoku - Hawaiian Cultural Center". kaiwakiloumoku.ksbe.edu.
  16. ^ "Hudson's Bay Company (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov.
  17. ^ a b "Steamed Salted Sockeye Salmon - Kaiwakīloumoku - Hawaiian Cultural Center". kaiwakiloumoku.ksbe.edu.
  18. ^ "The Origins of Traditional Lomi Lomi Salmon Explained - Amor Nino Foods, Inc". connect2local.com.
  19. ^ Bradley, Harold Whitman (1 February 1974). "Review: Don Francisco de Paula Marin: A Biography, by Ross H. Gast and Francisco de Paula Marin and The Letters and Journal of Francisco de Paula Marin, by Agnes C. Conrad and Francisco de Paula Marin". Pacific Historical Review. pp. 119–119. doi:10.2307/3637598.
  20. ^ Young, Peter T. (13 July 2016). "Shoyu". Images of Old Hawaiʻi.
  21. ^ Shurtleff, William, Akiko Aoyagi (21 May 2020). "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Hawaii (1847-2021) - SoyInfo Center". www.soyinfocenter.com.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ "Poke History: From the Ocean to the Islands to the Mainland". FOODICLES. 2 August 2022.
  23. ^ a b Gillett, Robert (2007). "A short history of industrial fishing in the Pacific Islands" (PDF). FAO.org.
  24. ^ Ogawa, Manako (January 2015). Sea of Opportunity: The Japanese Pioneers of the Fishing Industry in Hawaii. p. 62.
  25. ^ Doulman, D (1987). The development of the tuna industry in the Pacific Island Region: An analysis of options. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center. p. 33-52.
  26. ^ Boggs, C. H., Kikkawa, B. S (1993). "The Development and Decline of Hawaii's Skipjack Tuna Fishery" (PDF). Marine Fisheries Review. 2 (MFR 55): 66.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ "What is Poke And Why You Won't Find Poke Bowls in Hawaii". Around the World in Eighty Flavors. 12 August 2021.
  28. ^ "Japanese and Hawaiian Vernacular Names for Fish Eaten Raw". FDA.
  29. ^ "Hawaiian Fish Name Translations". Hawaii Nearshore Fishing. 13 August 2019.
  30. ^ Cheng, Martha (25 October 2017). "The 11 Best Places to Eat Poke in Honolulu". Eater.
  31. ^ "Albacore Tuna (Tombo Ahi)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  32. ^ "Bigeye Tuna (Ahi)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  33. ^ "Yellowfin Tuna (Ahi)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  34. ^ "Skipjack Tuna (Aku)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  35. ^ "Blue Marlin (Kajiki)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  36. ^ "Striped Marlin (Nairagi)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  37. ^ "Shortbill Spearfish (Hebi)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  38. ^ "Broadbill Swordfish (Mekajiki)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  39. ^ "How Did Ancient Hawaiians Fish?". KONA FISHING CHARTERS. 12 November 2015.
  40. ^ "Introduction: Hawaiian Fishing Traditions". hawaii.edu.
  41. ^ "Hawaiian Reef Fish". Hawaiian Encyclopedia.
  42. ^ "Know your mullets". Hawaii 24/7. 1 March 2019.
  43. ^ "Poke Ulua - Kaʻiwakīloumoku - Hawaiian Cultural Center". kaiwakiloumoku.ksbe.edu.
  44. ^ "Pink Snapper (Opakapaka)". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  45. ^ "Hawaii-Seafood.org – Pure & Natural". Hawaii-Seafood.org.
  46. ^ Paiva, Derek (27 October 2014). ""Power to the Poke": How to make Filipino "Jumping Salad" Shrimp Poke". Hawaii Magazine.
  47. ^ "Can You Eat Raw Shrimp? The Surprising Truth About This Seafood". betony-nyc.com. 13 March 2022.
  48. ^ "Can You Eat Octopus and How Does It Taste? - American Oceans". American Oceans. 17 January 2023.
  49. ^ Maslovara, Vedran (1 January 2023). "Is It Safe To Eat Raw Clams?". Mashed.
  50. ^ "6 Weird Korean Seafood You Never Knew". Asian Inspirations. 24 March 2021.
  51. ^ "What Is Hamachi? A Seafood Restaurant Explains - Ahi and Vegetable". connect2local.com.
  52. ^ "Deep Dive FAQ: Kanpachi/Kampachi". Today's Farmed Fish.
  53. ^ "5 We Tried: We Search for the Best Poke at Tamashiro Market". Honolulu Magazine. 9 October 2020.
  54. ^ "Ginger Scallion Sauce". Onolicious Hawaiʻi. 20 August 2023.
  55. ^ a b Vince Dixon (September 14, 2016). "Data Dive: Tracking the Poke Trend: Proof that the Hawaiian dish is here to stay". Eater.
  56. ^ Catherine Smart (December 27, 2016). "The Hawaiian raw-fish dish poke is having a moment". Boston Globe.
  57. ^ Laura Hayes (April 13, 2017). "What Does a Hawaii-Born Chef Think of D.C.'s Poke Craze?". Washington City Paper.
  58. ^ Jay Jones (May 12, 2016). "Hawaii's endless poke craze, stoked by new twists and traditional dishes". Los Angeles Times.
  59. ^ Hillary Dixler (January 22, 2016). "Can Poke Be the Next Fast-Casual Trend? Why restaurateurs are building brands around the Hawaiian staple". Easter.
  60. ^ Fabricant, Florence (2016-01-26). "Poké, a Hawaiian Specialty, Emerges in Chelsea". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
  61. ^ Stradley, Linda (2015-05-16). "Hawaiian Ahi Tuna Poke Recipe, Whats Cooking America". What's Cooking America. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
  62. ^ Uyeno, Kristine (2023-05-30). "Big poke competition returning to Kauai". KHON2. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
  63. ^ Barnes, Patti. "24 Egg Recipes That Are Totally Cracked (But We Have To Try)". TheRecipe. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  64. ^ "You Are Probably Wondering How the Filipino Dish "Poqui Poqui" Got Its Name". Yummy.ph. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  • Titcomb, Margaret (1972). Native use of fish in Hawaii (2nd ed.). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 9780870227974. OCLC 309517.

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