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Shia Islam in India

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Imambara, built by Mansur Ali Khan (Nawab of Bengal) is probably the largest Imambara of India in West Bengal

Shia Muslims are a large minority among India's Muslims. However, there has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects, but Indian sources like Times of India and DNA reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 between 25% and 31% of entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000[1][1] to 50,000,000[2] of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population.[3] However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million with Sayyids comprising just a tenth of the Shia population.[4] According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after Iran,[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] Shia population was also acclaimed publicly as second largest by the 14th Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh quoted in the year 2005.[14][15] One of the lingering problems in estimating the Shia population is that unless the Shia form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. Shiites are estimated to be 21–35 percent of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate due to the intermingling between the Muslim Sects and practice of taqiyya by Shias.[16]

However,some external sources such as the BBC claim that there are close to 20 million Shia's in India [17] and the Pew Research Center figure them between 10 to 14 percent giving the numbers between 16,000,000 to 24,000,000.[18] However, the Pew Research Center report is not considered authentic by many Shias and also national and International reports after taking into consideration the report released by Britannica Book of the year in 1997 which put the estimates of Shia population in India in 1996 over 26,000,000[19][20][21] out of entire Indian Muslim population of 103,000,000 at that time.[22][23]

There are many big and small towns and villages with majority Shiite Muslim population in India. Many Sayyids between 11th to 16th century migrated to the Indian subcontinent to escape the persecution of Shias in mostly Sunni ruled Middle East. Prominent places in India with majority or considerable Shia Muslim population are Kargil, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Barabanki, Sirsi, Amroha, Zaidpur, Hallaur, Jais & Naseerabad, Naugawan, Manikpur, Safipur, Unnao, Akbarpur, Sultanpur and Muzafar Nagar. Shias in Sirsi, Amroha, Hallaur, Zaidpur, Safipur and Naugawan are majority Sayyids. Among the Shias of India an overwhelming majority belongs to the Ithna Ashari (Twelver) division, while the Shias among the Khoja and Bohra communities are Ismaili.[24] Dawoodi Bohras are primarily based in India, even though the Dawoodi theology originated in Yemen. India is home to the majority Dawoodi Bohra population most of them concentrated in Gujarat out of over 1 million followers worldwide.[25]

History

Asafi Imambara Lucknow, builed by Nawab Asaf ud Daulah one of the largest Imambara of India

There is no certainty as to when the Shia community first established itself in the Indian Subcontinent. As per historical evidences and the genealogy maintained by the Sayyids who migrated to India from Middle East the history of Shia Islam traces long back around 1000 years. The rulers of various dynasties of India and also in the 11th century the rulers of Multan and Sindh were adherents of Shia Islam.[26] The Nawabs of Awadh and Hyder Ali & Tipu Sultan of Mysore, who were rulers in India, were also Shia Muslims.[27]

Shia culture and belief has left its influence all over India with Imam al Husain ibn Ali becoming the revered personality in India not only for the Shias but also from non-Muslim communities, especially the Hindus of northern India who participate in ceremonies commemorating Husain ibn Ali's martyrdom on the day of Ashura.

Shaykh al-Mufid writes that before the Battle of Karbala, Husain ibn Ali and the commander of the enemy forces, Umar ibn Saad, met at night and talked together for a long time. After that meeting Umar ibn Saad sent a letter to the Governor of Kufa, Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad in which he wrote that Husain ibn Ali has suggested that he go to ‘one of the border outposts’ of the rapidly expanding Muslim empire as a way of resolving conflict.[28] Other traditions name that border outpost as Al Hind or India. Even though Husain ibn Ali himself was not able to go to India, some of the Shia did emigrate there for various reasons, including those who came as refugees from Umayyads and Abbasids persecution.[29] These refugees brought with them rituals which kept alive the remembrance of Karbala and their Shia Identity.[30]

Its narrated by Abd al Razzaq al Muqarram in his work of Maqtal al-Husayn that prior to his martyrdom, Al Abbas ibn Ali while asking water for Mohammad's family from the Yazid's army expressed his desire to go either Rome or to India. This made some people weep in the army of Yazid.[31]

It has been believed that in 7th century few ladies from the household of Prophet Mohammad after Battle of Karbala came to Punjab province which became a part of Pakistan. One of the prominent of them was Ruqayyah bint Ali, the daughter of Ali bin Abi Talib through his wife Ummul Banin, Ruqayyah bint Ali was the sister of Abbas ibn Ali and wife of Muslim ibn Aqeel. Still her shrine in Lahore, Punjab of Pakistan, is visited by people all around and she is referred as Bibi Pak Daman.

Most of the Persians Shias migrated to South Asia to prosper and obtain high positions in Muslim Sultanates and later Mughal Empire. There were also rebels and nobles who lost royal favour and migrated to Mughal Empire. The Mughals also preferred to employ foreign Muslim officials that had no local interests and thus were loyal to the Mughal emperor. The Humayun has returned from exile in Persia with thousands of Persians soldiers and nobles this increased the influence of the Shia Persians in Mughal Empire.

Persecution

Shiites in India faced persecution by some Sunni rulers and Mughal Emperors which resulted in the martyrdom of Indian Shia scholars like Qazi Nurullah Shustari (also known as Shaheed-e-Thaalis, the third Martyr) and Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dehlavi (also known as Shaheed-e- Rabay, the fourth Martyr) who are two of the five martyrs of Shia Islam.

Shias also faced persecution in India in Kashmir for centuries, by the Sunni invaders of the region which resulted in massacre of many Shias and as a result most of them had to flee the region.[32] Shias in Kashmir in subsequent years had to pass through the most atrocious period of their history. Plunder, loot and massacres which came to be known as ‘Taarajs’ virtually devastated the community. History records 10 such Taarajs also known as ‘Taraj-e-Shia’ between 15th to 19th century in 1548, 1585, 1635, 1686, 1719, 1741, 1762, 1801, 1830, 1872 during which the Shia habitations were plundered, people slaughtered, libraries burnt and their sacred sites desecrated.[32] Such was the reign of terror during this period that the community widely went into the practice of Taqya in order to preserve their lives and the honor of their womenfolk.[32] Village after village disappeared, with community members either migrating to safety further north or dissolving in the majority faith. The persecution suffered by Shias in Kashmir during the successive foreign rules was not new for the community. Many of the standard bearers of Shia’ism, like Sa’adaat or the descendants of the Prophet Mohammad and other missionaries who played a key role in spread of the faith in Kashmir, had left their home lands forced by similar situations.[32]

India's role in battle of Karbala

Nathanvilal Wahshi, a Hindu Writer narrated about the arrival of a helper for Husain’s cause on the eight day of Moharram. Husain ibn Ali welcomed him and immediately confirmed his Indian Identity. Husain ibn Ali then goes on to praise India and its people in the following words:

"The perfumed fragrance entered the realm of love from your country The cool breeze came to my grandfather Mohammad from that garden."[33]

Upon asking more about the guest’s background he finds out that he is an Indian merchant residing in neighboring city of Basra, his father had been entrusted with the treasury of the war booty by none other than Ali bin Abitalib. For this reason the merchant holds himself morally responsible for assisting Husain ibn Ali in any possible way when the later is in trouble. Husain ibn Ali appreciated gesture, but discouraged the merchant from taking up arms in following words:

"Brother, in my opinion you are the beloved of the world In this country you are the treasure of India."[33]

Munshi Premchand further narrates the perception of this merchant on the part of Imam as suspicion about Husain ibn Ali’s sincerity because of being a Hindu.

With tear filled eyes the traveler said: ”I am a Hindu, perhaps my fidelity is not convincing Master! Even though this heart is the land of Idol Temple In it is also lit the light of affection”.[33]

Husain ibn Ali said : What have you said in passion, Why should my eyes doubt your fidelity? My lord is aware of my conscience. What’s the difference between Hindu and Muslim is the quest for truth. This has the guiding principle for the People of the Cloak or Ahl al-Kisa. ”.[34]

Shia Muslim Dynasties in India

Shiite Islam has deep rooted influence in present and history of India from North to South with various Shia Muslim dynasties ruling Indian provinces from time to time.

Few prominent ones of the Indian Shia Muslim dynasties are as follows:

  • Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527 AD)

The Bahmani Sultanate also called the Bahmanid Empire or Bahmani Kingdom was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms.[35] Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic and Shi'ite Kingdom in South India.[36]

  • Sharqi Dynasty (1394 CE to 1479 CE)

The Sharqi sultanate was an independent medieval Shia Muslim dynasty of North India, one of the many kingdoms that came up following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. Between 1394 CE to 1479 CE, Sharqi dynasty ruled from Jaunpur in the present day state of Uttar Pradesh.

  • Berar Sultanate (1490–1572 AD)

On the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan (1348), Berar Sultanate was constituted one of the five provinces into which their kingdom was divided, being governed by great nobles, with a separate army. The perils of this system becoming apparent, the province was divided (1478 or 1479) into two separate provinces, named after their capitals Gawil and Mahur.

  • Bidar Sultanate (1489–1619 AD)

Bidar Sultanate was one of the Deccan sultanates of late medieval India. Its founder, Qasim Barid was a Turk, domiciled in Georgia. He joined the service of the Bahmani sultan Muhammad Shah III. He started his career as a Sar-Naubat but later became the Mir-Jumla (prime minister) of the Bahmani sultanate.

  • Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518–1687 AD)

The Qutb Shahi dynasty was a Turkic dynasty (whose members were also called the Qutub Shahis). They were the ruling family of the kingdom of Golconda in southern India. They were Shia Muslims and belonged to Kara Koyunlu.

  • Adil Shahi dynasty (1527–1686 AD)

The Adil Shahi dynasty ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur in the Western area of the Deccan region of Southern India from 1490 to 1686. Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1518), before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, after its conquest by the Emperor Aurangzeb.[37]

  • Nawab of Awadh (1722–1858 AD)

Of all the Muslim states and dependencies of the Mughal empire, Awadh had the newest royal family, the Nawabs of Awadh. They were descended from a Persian adventurer called Sa'adat Khan, originally from Khurasan in Persia.

  • Najafi Nawabs of Bengal (1757–1880)

The Najafi Dynasty of Nawabs of Bengal were Sayyids and were descendants of Prophet Muhammad through Al Imam Hasan ibn Ali, ruling from 1757 until 1880.

  • Nawab of Rampur

Rampur, former princely state of British India. Previously ruled by Shiite Muslim Nawabs of Rampur, it was incorporated into the state of Uttar Pradesh in 1949.

Present circumstances

India, the only non Muslim nation in the world with Shiite population of 3–4 percent of its entire population, has recognized the day of Ashura listed as Moharram as the Public Holiday in India. India also has the Birthday of Imam Ali bin Abi Talib as public Holiday in states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, whose capital Lucknow is considered as the centre of India’s Shiite Muslim community. The Birthdate of Ali bin Abi Talib is not recognized by any country in any of its states other than India and Iran as public Holiday. It is also a known fact that when Saddam mercilessly quelled a Shia uprising in 1992. The world media remained silent and damage to the shrines of Husayn ibn Ali and his half-brother Al Abbas ibn Ali, in the course of Baathist attempts to flush out Shia rebels was a tightly kept secret of the Saddam regime but Indian media Doordarshan was the only network in the world to have shown that footage.[38]

Unlike the Sunnis, the Shia Muslims in Kashmir remain supportive of Indian rule and send their children to join the Indian army. They consider those who lost life fighting terrorists as Patriots.[39]

India being a secular country, Shiite Muslims in India practice their religion freely without any restriction, except for few areas like Kashmir where their religious freedom is suppressed by Indian government.[40] However, in post Godhra riots a Shia Ex Member of the Parliament Ehsan Jafri was reported to be burnt to death by Hindu mob in his own residence in the state of Gujarat in 2002.

Shias also claim to be sidelined in India, hence the All India Shia Personal Law Board was formed after segregation from the All India Muslim Personal Law Board in 2005 to address the legal needs of the Shia population. AISPLB feels that there should be a national policy for the Shias to prevent their exploitation by vested interests. The attitude of the government towards Muslims especially in Maharashtra came in for criticism.[1] The newly formed All India Shia Personal Law Board had 69 members at the time of formation compared to 204 members in the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.[41] The Shia body had the support of the erstwhile royal family of Lucknow, some 2000 descendants of the family claim to have extended their support. Shias claim they have been sidelined by the Sunni-dominated law board, which was set up in 1972.[42] Maulana Mirza Mohammed Athar, president of the breakaway All India Shia Personal Law Board explained the reason for segregation saying that, Shias have formed a forum of themselves because the All India Muslim Personal Law Board never took interest in their well being." Shias and Sunnis do not interpret family laws in a similar way. Shiites also have different Mosques and Burial grounds in India.[42]

Politics

Although a majority of Shia Muslims, like other Muslims of India generally supporters of the Indian National Congress, Shia Muslims are better disposed towards the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) than Sunnis.[43][44][45]

Azadari in India

Husainabad Imambara also known as Chota Imambara at Husainabad, Lucknow, built in 1838 by King Mohammad Ali Shah of Awadh
See also: Azadari in Lucknow

Azadari or the mourning practice of Imam Husain ibn Ali is very much prevalent across India.[46] One thing which is worth noting in Indian Azadari is the participation of non Muslims in Shia rituals on the day of Ashura.[46][47][48]

The Hindu rulers of Vijayanagar during the 16th and 17th centuries even donned blackened garments and helped to arrange the Kala Tazia (Black Tazia) processions. Even the Scindias of Gwalior and the Holkar Maharajas of Indore conducted Majlis or Muharram congregations.[49] In Lucknow Hindus regularly join Muslims in the Azadari and Alam processions. The Sufi saints of India along with the Shi'ite Scholars encouraged the mixing and merging of indigenous elements from the rich cultural heritage of the land to that of Muharram thus proclaiming the message of peaceful co-existence among communities and united resistance to tyrannical authority.[49]

The carrying of Alams through fire by men is more common. There are several occasions when these are traditionally practiced particularly in the town of Vizianagaram 550 km outside of Hyderabad where 110 Alams are taken through the fire. A significant aspect of firewalking in the context of Moharram commemorations in Andhra Pradesh is the participation of Hindus in the ceremonies. In Vizinagaram 109 of the Alams are carried by Hindus.[50]

Notable Shia Muslim Personalities of India

Diplomates and Bureaucracrates

  • Dr. Abid Husain (26 December 1926 – 21 June 2012) was an Indian economist, civil servant and diplomat. He was India's Ambassador to the U.S.A.(1990 to 1992) and a member of the Planning Commission (1985 to 1990). Dr. Husain was honoured in 1988 with the Padma Bhushan (awarded to recognize distinguished service of a high order to the nation).
  • Professor Saiyed Nurul Hasan
    Saiyed Nurul Hasan
    was a historian, prolific author, statesman in the Government of India, he served as Union Minister of Education, Social Welfare and Culture (1972–1977), Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1983–1986), Governor of Bengal (1986-1989 and 1990-1993) and Governor of Odisha (1988-1990 and Feb 1993- May 1993).

Artists

File:110786Bismillah.jpg
Ustaad Bismillah Khan

Religion

Literature

  • Mir Anis (1803-1874)– Mir Babar Ali Anis legendary Urdu poet and renowned Marsia writer all over the world. He was born in Faizabad in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in 1803 and died in 1874.
  • Mirza Dabeer (1803–1875)– Salamat Ali Dabeer leading Urdu poet of India who excelled and perfected the art of Marsia writing and is considered the leading exponent of Marsiya writing along with Mir Anis.
  • Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda (A.H. 1125 [1713-14]- A.H. 1195 [1780–81]) was the leading Urdu poet of his time. His accomplishments were a cause of pride to the city of Delhi.
  • Mir Moonis
  • Josh Malihabadi (December 5, 1894 – February 22, 1982) born as Shabbir Hasan Khan (شبیر حسن خان) was a noted Urdu poet born in British India. He actively participated in freedom struggle of India and came to be called Shaair-e-Inquilaab (Poet of the Revolution). He was an Indian citizen until 1958, when he emigrated to Pakistan and became a Pakistani citizen. He wrote Marsiyaas, ghazals and nazms under the takhallus (Urdu for nom de plume) Josh (جوش) (literally, "Passion" or "Intensity").
  • Mirza Muhammad Hadi Ruswa (Urdu: مرزا محمد ہادی رسوا) (1857 – October 21, 1931) was an Urdu poet and writer of fiction, plays, and treatises (mainly on religion, philosophy, and astronomy).
  • Dr. Rahi Masoom Raza Urdu/Hindi writer/Poet he wrote the scripts and dialogues for a many popular TV serials including Mahabharat, films, Novel Neem Ka Ped and many more.
  • Prof. Naiyer Masud Rizvi - former Professor of Persian in Lucknow University, is one of the foremost short story writers in Urdu. He was awarded the (2001) Urdu prize of the Sahitya Akademi and the Saraswati Samman in (2007). Naiyer Masud is the son of Syed Hasan Masud Rizvi Adeeb, also a Professor of Persian and a famed scholar of dastaan.

Business and politics – present and past

Azim Premji, CEO of India's 3rd largest IT company Wipro Technologies and the 5th richest man in India with an estimated fortune of US$17.1 billion.[54]

Bollywood

  • Kamal Amrohi – Director, screenwriter and dialogue writer
  • Kaifi Azmi - Lyricist
  • Shabana Azmi - Actress
  • Farah Naaz - Actress
  • Muzaffar Ali - Padma Shri (2005) Rajah Muzaffar Ali (born 21 October 1944, Lucknow) is an Indian film-maker, an actor, a fashion designer, a poet, an artist, a music-lover, a revivalist, and a social worker. He belongs to a Royal Muslim Rajput family of Kotwara. He directed and produced Gaman (1978), Umrao Jaan (1981) and many other films, Serials and Plays.
  • Javed Jaffrey – Actor and comedian
  • Akbar Khan – Actor, screenwriter, producer and director
  • Fardeen Khan – Actor and son of Feroz Khan
  • Feroz Khan – Actor, film editor, producer and director
  • Sanjay Khan – Actor turned film producer and director
  • Zayed Khan – Actor and son of Sanjay Khan
  • Meena Kumari – Actress and Urdu-Hindi poetess
  • Salim-Sulaiman – Music composer duo
  • Aamir Khan -Actor and son of tahir hussain
  • M. F. Husain-Painter and Bollywood filmmaker
  • Emraan Hashmi - Actor

Sports

  • Syed Kirmani - Syed Mujtaba Hussain Kirmani (Kannada: ಸೈಯದ್ ಮುಜ್ತಾಬ ಹುಸೇನ್ ಕಿರ್ಮಾನಿ) (born December 29, 1949, in Madras) played International Cricket for India and Karnataka as a wicket-keeper and batsman. He was awarded the Padma Sri in 1982. He served as the chairman of the selection committee for India in the early 2000s.
  • Sania Mirza – Tennis player, awarded the Arjuna Award in 2004

Shia organizations in India

See also

References

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  2. ^ "Talaq rights proposed for Shia women". Daily News and Analysis, www.dnaindia.com. 5 November 2006. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
  3. ^ "India Third in Global Muslim Population". Twocircles.net. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  4. ^ "Why India". Alimaan Charitable Trust. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  5. ^ "India – Iran relations: Converging Interests or Drifting Equations". Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. Retrieved 2010-08-21.
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  9. ^ Parashar, Sachin (2009-11-10). "India, Iran to make common cause over terror from Pak". The Times of India. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
  10. ^ Jahanbegloo, Ramin (2009-02-01). "Aspiring powers and a new old friendship". The Times of India. Retrieved 2010-07-12.
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  12. ^ "India Iran Culture". Tehran Times. April 23, 2008. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
  13. ^ "Connecting India with its Diaspora". Overseas Indian. April 22, 2008. Retrieved 2010-07-01. [dead link]
  14. ^ "Iran is the largest Shia Muslim country..." Indian Express. July 25, 2005. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
  15. ^ Rajghatta, Chidanand (September 16, 2005). "No difference with US on Iran". Times of India. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
  16. ^ Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.277
  17. ^ Mukerjee, Sutapa (2005-02-09). "India's Muslims face up to rifts". BBC News.
  18. ^ Miller, Tracy, ed. (2009). "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2010-06-09. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ 1997 Britannica Book of the Year, 1997, p.781-783
  20. ^ "43,941 adherent statistic citations: membership and geography data for 4,300+ religions, churches, tribes, etc". Adherents.com. February 1, 2009. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
  21. ^ "Top 10 Largest National Shiite Populations". Adherents.com. July 7, 1999. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  22. ^ "Top 10 Largest National Muslim Populations". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  23. ^ Ash, Russell. The Top 10 of Everything, DK Publishing, Inc.: New York, 1997, p.160-161
  24. ^ Mahmood, Tahir (December 11, 2006). "Reform Friendly". The Times of India. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
  25. ^ "Far Reaching Dawoodi Bohras". Dawoodi Bohra UK. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  26. ^ "Islam in India". India Resource. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
  27. ^ Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s). Bbc.co.uk (2009-09-07). Retrieved on 2011-11-07.
  28. ^ Al-Mufid, Shaykh Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Harithi al-Baghdadi (1981). Kitab al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Qum: Ansariyan Publications. p. 343.
  29. ^ Hollister, J.N. (1988). Islam and Shia's Faith in India. Delhi: Kanishka. p. 101.
  30. ^ Howarth, Toby. "From Karbala to India". The Twelver Shi'a as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears. p. 07.
  31. ^ al Muqarram, Abd al Razzaq. "Martyrdom of Al Abbas [as]". Maqtal al Husain [as]: Martyrdom epic of Imam al Husain [as]. p. 218.
  32. ^ a b c d "Shias of Kashmir – Socio Political Dilemmas". Kashmir Observer. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
  33. ^ a b c Syed Akbar Hyder. Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory . Notes, page 180
  34. ^ Syed Akbar Hyder. Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory . Notes, page 181
  35. ^ "The Five Kingdoms of the Bahmani Sultanate". orbat.com. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  36. ^ Ansari, N.H. "Bahmanid Dynasty" Encyclopaedia Iranica
  37. ^ The Peacock Throne by Waldemar Hansen. ISBN 978-81-208-0225-4. Page 468.
  38. ^ "Pieces of Shia Jigsaw". Indian Express. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
  39. ^ "Kashmiri Shia mourn India patriot". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  40. ^ "Shias protest baton charge on Muharram procession in Srinagar". Thaindian News. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
  41. ^ Mukerjee, Sutapa (February 9, 2005). "India's Muslims face up to rifts". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
  42. ^ a b Mukerjee, Sutapa (February 9, 2005). "India's Muslims face up to rifts". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
  43. ^ "UP Pollas: Multiple Undercurrents". Live Mint. March 1, 2012.
  44. ^ "The Muslim as BJP supporter in Gujarat". February 24, 2011.
  45. ^ "Shia party to align with Sena-BJP".
  46. ^ a b "Muharram observed peacefully across India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2010-06-21. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help) [dead link] Cite error: The named reference "The Times of India" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  47. ^ Dutta, Tuhin (2005-02-18). "Peace pact in martyr?s memory – Hindus to set up refreshment stalls for muharram". Calcutta, India: The Telegraph (Kolkata). Retrieved 2010-06-21.
  48. ^ "Hindus walk on fire on Moharram". DNA (newspaper). Retrieved 2010-06-21.
  49. ^ a b "Muharram in India: Indigenous in Spirit". Times of India. 2001-04-05. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
  50. ^ Toby Howarth. The Twelver Shi'a as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears . Notes, page 195
  51. ^ a b c Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism By Justin Jones
  52. ^ The Twelver Shîʻa as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears By Toby M. Howarth
  53. ^ The Light, Volumes 22-23. Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania. 1988. p. 3. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  54. ^ Frugal billionaires. Forbes.com (2007-11-14). Retrieved on 2011-11-07.

Further reading

  • The book "Durr-e-Mansoor dar Halaat-e-Ulama-e-Zangipur"
  • The book "MATLA-e-ANWAR" (By Maulana Murtaza Husain Sadrul-Afazil)
  • The book "KHURSHEED-e-KHAWAR" (By Maulan Saeed Akhtar Gopalpuri)
  • The thesis on "Life of Jawad-ul-Ulama" research work of Dr.Inayet Ali (Aligarh Muslim University)
  • The booklet "Haqnuma" published Jamia-Imania,Banaras
  • The booklet on Life of Mulla Syed Mohammad Tahir ( By Maulana Syed Ahmad Hasan)
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