User:HYC/Drafts

E-mail headers

RFC 2822 specifies the following groups of email headers:

The origination date field

Date: The origination date specifies the date and time at which the human creator sends or submits the message for delivery.

Originator fields

The originator fields indicate the mailbox or mailboxes of the source of the message.

From: specifies the mailbox of the author of the message.
Sender: specifies the mailbox of the agent responsible for the actual transmission of the message (e.g. a secretary working for another person).; This field should not be used if identical to the "From:" field.
Reply-To: indicates the mailbox(es) where the replies should be sent. If absent, replies should be sent to the mailbox indicated in the "From:" field.

Destination address fields

The destination fields indicate the intended recipients of the message.

To: indicate the address(es) of the primary recipient(s) of the message.
Cc: means "Carbon Copy"; indicate secondary recipients of the message (that is, those to whom the content of which may not be directed, or are not requested to reply).
Bcc: means "Blind Carbon Copy"; contains addresses of the recipients which are not to be revealed to the other recipients of the same message. This "Bcc:" line is therefore removed from the copies sent to other recipients of the message.

Identification fields

Identification fields identify a message and the thread of replies.

Message-ID: this field contains one single message identifier. A message identifier must be globally unique to each message or even to each version of a particular message.
In-Reply-To: this field is used when replying to a message and contains the "message identifier(s)" of the message(s) which it is replying to (its "parent" messages).
References: this field is used when replying to a message and may be used to track the "thread" of a conversation.

Informational fields

The informational fields contain information about the message. They are optional, and intended to have only human-readable content.

Subject: a short string identifying the topic of the message. May start with "Re:" when used in a reply or with "Fwd:" when used in a forwarded message.
Comments: any additional comments on the text of the body of the message.
Keywords: a comma-separated list of important words and phrases that might be useful for the recipient.

Resent fields

Resent fields are added to identify a message reintroduced by a user into the transport system.

Resent-Date
Resent-From
Resent-Sender
Resent-To
Resent-Cc
Resent-Bcc
Resent-Message-ID

Resent fields are added for informational purposes to identify the one who resent the message and the time resent; the original fields should remain unchanged. The "Resent-To:", "Resent-Cc:", and "Resent-Bcc:" fields function just like the "To:", "Cc:", and "Bcc:" fields, except for the fact that they indicate the recipients of the resent message, not the recipients of the original message.

Trace fields

Return-Path: optional field indicating the return path address. This field may be different from the "From:" field, especially when delivery errors are to be delivered in a special mailbox rather than to the message sender.
Received: these fields are added to track the message as it is passed from one mail server to another until it arrives at the destination.

For a full discussion of the use of trace fields, see RFC 2821.

Optional fields

Optional fields are fields that may appear in messages but that which are unspecified in RFC 2822. The field names of any optional-field must not be identical to any field name specified in that standard.

United States: Jurisdition

The United States of America

States: 50 constituent states, jurisditions which operate under a system of parallel sovereignty with the federal government. Once admitted into the Union, states do not have the right of secession without the consent of the other states.
Federal District: District of Columbia. (Coextensive with the city of Washington.) The land it occupies once belonged to the state of Maryland (another portion was retroceded to Virginia in 1847).

Associate States of the United States

These nations are associated with the United States under a Compact of Free Association. They enjoy international sovereignty and ultimate control of their territory, but the United States provide defense, funding grants, and social services.

Federated States of Micronesia (1986– )

Republic of Marshall Islands (1986– )

Republic of Palau (1994–)

United States Territories

These are territories under the jurisdition of the United States.

"Incorporation" brings a territory permanently under the jurisdition of the Constitution of the United States -- once incorporated, an incorporated territory can no longer be de-incorporated. The U.S. Constitution is applied to the territory's inhabitants in its entirety (e.g., citizenship, trial by jury).

For unincorporated territories under U.S. jurisdiction, only certain "natural" protections of the Constitution apply (e.g., freedom of speech, due process), plus other parts the Congress has added.

Incorporated Unorganized Territory: Palmyra Atoll (formerly part of the Territory of Hawaii)
Unincorporated Organized Territories: U.S. Territory of Guam; U.S. Virgin Islands

Unincorporated Territories with Commonwealth Status Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (1952– ) Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (1986– )

Unincorporated Unorganized Territory: American Samoa; Islands with no indigenous inhabitants: Johnston Atoll (only military personnel and contractors), Wake Island (only contractor personnel), Midway Islands (managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service); Uninhabited islands: Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Navassa Island.

Native American Nations

The U.S. recognizes the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves. Thus, Indian tribes are sovereign nations under U.S. law (their legal authority to exist derives independently of the state and federal governments). They are immune from regulations under state law, but they cannot act independently of the federal government. The political and economic rights of tribal governments are still regulated by Federal law, and all Indian land is held in trust by the United States.

In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), Chief Justice Marshall characterized the tribes as "domestic dependent nations," stating that "an Indian tribe or nation within the United States is not a foreign state in the sense of the constitution," but that these domestic nations "are in a state of pupilage" and that "their relations to the US resemble that of a ward to his guardian."

Although Congress extended national citizenship to members of enrolled tribes in 1924, a court decision held that "the granting of citizenship did not destroy ... jurisdition of tribal courts." A previous case law said that "when Indians are prepared to exercise the privileges and bear the burdens of one sui juris (not under the power of another), the tribal relation may be dissolved and the national guardianship brought to an end, but it rests with Congress to determine when and how this shall be done, and whether the emancipation shall be complete or only partial ..." (U.S. v. Nice, 1916).

The courts also have determined that "It is thoroughly established that Congress has plenary authority over Indians." and that no law had ever extended provisions of the US constitution, including the right of habeas corpus, to tribal members brought before tribal courts.

Therefore, Indian courts should be seen, at least in part, as arms of the federal government, because "originally they were created by federal executive and imposed upon the Indian community, and to this day the federal government still maintains a partial control over them," even though "it does not follow from our decision that the tribal court must comply with every constitutional restriction that is applicable to federal or state courts" (U.S. Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, 1965).

Source: Tribal sovereignty