User:MissLinguist/sandbox
The medieval Germanic languages are the earliest attested stages of the Germanic languages. The most widely studied of these are Gothic (Go), Old English (OE), Old High German (OHG), Old Norse (ON), and Old Saxon (OS). They are similar to each other in phonology, morphology, and the lexicon because they all descend from a hypothetical common ancestor, the Proto-Germanic language.Gothic is an East Germanic language, Old Norse is North Germanic, and Old English, Old High German, and Old Saxon are in the West Germanic group.
Contents
[edit]- 1 Comparative phonology
- 2 Comparative morphology
- 3 Word formation
- 4 Comparative syntax
- 5 Lexicon
- 6 See also
- 7 References
Comparative phonology
[edit]Vowels
[edit]| Proto-Germanic | Phonetic Description | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *a | open back unrounded | æ (fæder) | a (fadar) | a (fađir) |
| *e | mid front unrounded | e (etan) | e (etan) | e (eta) |
| *i | close front unrounded | i (scip) | i (skip) | i (skip) |
| *u | mid back rounded | o (gold) | o (gold) | o (gull?) |
| *u | close back rounded | u (wulf) | u (uuulf) | u (ulfr) |
| *a+N | open back unrounded | æ: (ander-)? | â (ôðar) | (annar)? |
| *e:1 | mid front unrounded | e: (dēd) | â (dâd) | á (dáð) |
| *e:2 | mid front unrounded | e: (hēr) | ê (hêr) | é (hér) |
| *i: | close front unrounded | i: (stīgan) | î (stîgan) | í (stíga) |
| *o: | mid back rounded | o: (brōþor) | ô (brôðar) | ó (bróðir) |
| *u: | close back rounded | u: (hūs) | û (hûs) | ú/ý (hús) |
Consonants
[edit]| Proto-Germanic | Phonetic Description | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | voiceless labial stop | p (dēop) | p (diop) | p (djúpr) |
| *t | voiceless alveolar stop | t (sittan) | t (settian) | t (sitja) |
| *k | voiceless velar stop | k (ēac) | k (ôk) | k (ok) |
| *b | voiced bilabial stop | b (betera) | b (betara) | b (betri) |
| *d | voiced alveolar stop | d (fæder) | d (fadar) | ð (faðir) |
| *g | voiced velar stop | g (gefan) | g (geɓan) | g (gefa) |
| *m | voiced bilabial nasal | m (manig) | m (manag) | m (margr) |
| *n | voiced alveolar nasal | n (niht) | n (naht) | n (nótt) |
| *f | voiced labiodental fricative | f (wulf) | f (uuulf) | f (ulfr) |
| *þ | voiceless interdental fricative | þ (þyncan) | th (thunkian) | þ (þykkja) |
| *s | voiceless alveolar fricative | s (hūs) | s (hûs) | s (hús) |
| *z | voiced alveolar fricative | ? | r (mêr) | r (meir) |
| *x | unvoiced velar fricative | h (hūs) | h (hûs) | h (hús) |
| *w | voiced labial-velar approximant | w (wulf) | uu (uuulf) | u (ulfr) |
| *l | voiced alveolar lateral | l (wulf) | l (uuulf) | l (ulfr) |
| *r | voiced dental lateral | r (fæder) | r (fadar) | r (faðir) |
Comparative morphology
[edit]Declension of nouns
[edit]ō-stems (all feminine):
| Case/number | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom.sg | giefu | geba | gjöf |
| Gen. | giefe | geba,-u,-o | gjöfar |
| Dat. | giefe | gebu,-a,-o | gjöf |
| Acc. | giefe | geba,-e | gjöf |
| Nom.pl. | giefa,-e | geba | gjöfar |
| Gen. | giefa,-ena | gebono | gjöfa |
| Dat. | giefum | gebon,-um,-un | gjöfum |
| Acc. | giefa,-e | geba | gjöfar |
a-stems (masculine and neuter):
| Case/number | masculine | neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| Nom.sg | dæg ('day') | dag | dagr | word ('word') | uuord | orð |
| Gen. | dæges | dages,-as | dag | wordes | uuordes,-as | orð |
| Dat. | dæge | dage,-a | degi | worde | uuorde,-a | orði |
| Acc. | dæg | dag | dags | word | uuord | orðs |
| Instr. | dagu,-o | uuordu,-o | ||||
| Nom.pl. | dagas | dagos,-as | dagar | word | uuord | orð |
| Gen. | daga | dago | daga | worda | uuordo | orð |
| Dat. | dagum | dagon,-un | dǫgum | wordum | uuordum,-un,-on | orðum |
| Acc. | dagas | dagos,-as | daga | word | uuord | orða |
weak noun-declension:
| Case/number | masculine | feminine | neuter | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| Nom.sg | guma ('man') | gumo,-a | gumi | tunge ('tongue') | tunga,-e | tunga | ēage ('eye') | oga | auga |
| Gen. | guman | gumen,-an,-on | guma | tungan | tungun,-on,-an | tungu | ēagen | ogan, -an, -on | auga |
| Dat. | guman | gumen,-an,-on | guma | tungan | tungun,-on,-an | tungu | ēagen | ogan, -an, -on | auga |
| Acc. | guman | gumon,-an | guma | tungan | tungun,-on,-an | tungu | ēagen | oga, -e | auga |
| Instr. | |||||||||
| Nom.pl. | guman | gumon,-un,-an | gumar, gumnar | tungan | tungun,-on,-an | tungur | ēagan | ogun, -on | augu |
| Gen. | gumena | gumono | guma, gumna | tung(e)na | tungono | tungur | ēag(e)na | ogono | augu |
| Dat. | gumum | gumon,-un | gumum, gumnum | tungum | tungun,-on,-an | tungum | ēagum | ogun, -on | augum |
| Acc. | guman | gumon,-un,-an | gumna | tungan | tungun,-on,-an | tungna | ēagan | ogun, -on | augna |
Adjectives
[edit]Strong (or Indefinite) Declension:
| Case/number | masculine | feminine | neuter | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| Nom.sg | hāliġ ('holy') | hêlag | heilagr | hāliġu | hêlag | helg, heilǫg | hāliġ | hêlag | helgt, heilagt |
| Gen. | hāliġes | hêlages, -as | heilags | hāliġre | hêlagaro, -era | heilagrar | hāliġes | hêlages, -as | heilags |
| Dat. | hāliġum | hêlagum, -om, -omu, -emo | helgum | hāliġre | hêlagaru, -eru | heilagri | hāliġum | hêlagu, -umu, -un, -um | helgu |
| Acc. | hāliġne | hêlagana, -an | helgan | hāliġe | hêlaga, -e | helga | hāliġ | hêlag | heilagt |
| Instr. | hāliġe | hêlagu, -o | hāliġe | hêlagu, -o | |||||
| Nom.pl. | hāliġe | hêlaga, -e | helgir, heilagir | hāliġa, -e | hêlaga, -e | helgar, heilagar | hāliġu | hêlag, hêlage | helg, heilǫg |
| Gen. | hāligra | hêlagaro, -ero | heilaga | hāliġra | hêlagaro, -ero | heilagra | hāliġra | hêlagaro, -ero | heilagra |
| Dat. | hāligum | hêlagum, -un, -om, -on | helgum | hāliġum | hêlagum, -un, -omu, -emo | helgum | hāliġum | hêlagum, -un, -om, -on | helgum |
| Acc. | hālige | hêlaga, -e | helga | hāliġa,-e | hêlaga, -e | helgar | hāliġu | hêlag, hêlage | heilag (?) |
Weak (or Definite) Declension :
| Case/number | masculine | feminine | neuter | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| Nom.sg | hāliġa ('holy') | hêlago, -a | helgi, heilagi | hāliġe | hêlaga, -e | helga, heilaga | hāliġe | hêlaga, -e | helga, heilaga |
| Gen. | hāliġan | hêlagen, -an, -on | helga | hāliġan | hêlagun | helgu | hāliġan | hêlagen, -an, -on | helga |
| Dat. | hāliġan | hêlagen, -an, -on | helga | hāliġan | hêlagun, -on, -an | helgu | hāliġan | hêlagen, -an, -on | helga |
| Acc. | hāliġan | hêlagon, -an | helga | hāliġan | hêlagun, -on, -an | helgu | hāliġe | hêlaga, -e | helga |
| Instr. | |||||||||
| Nom.pl. | hāliġan | hêlagun, -on, -an | helgu, heilǫgu | hāliġan | hêlagun, -on, -an | helgu, heilǫgu | hāliġan | hêlagun, -on, -an | helgu, heilǫgu |
| Gen. | hāliġra, -ena | hêlagono | helgu | hāliġra, -ena | hêlagono | helgu | hāliġra, -ena | hêlagono | helgu |
| Dat. | hāliġum | hêlagum, un, on | helgum | hāliġum | hêlagum, un, on | helgum | hāliġum | hêlagum, un, on | helgum |
| Acc. | hāliġan | hêlagun, on, -an | helgu | hāliġan | hêlagun, on, -an | helgu | hāliġan | hêlagun, on, -an | helgu |
Conjugation of verbs
[edit]Strong Verbs
| Person | present indicative | present subjunctive | past indicative | past subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| 1 sg | ċēose ('choose') | kiusu, -o ('choose') | kýs('choose', Infinitive: 'kjósa') | ċēose | kiose, -a | kjósa | ċēas | kôs | kaus | cure | kuri | kysa |
| 2 | ċȳst | kiusis | kýsr | ċēose | kioses, -as | kjósir | cure | kuri | kaust | cure | kuris | kysir |
| 3 | ċȳsð | kiusid,-t | kýsr | ċēose | kiose, -a | kjósi | ċēas | kôs | kaus | cure | kuri | kysi |
| 1 pl | ċēosað | kiosad, -t | kjósum | ċēosen | kiosen, -an | kjósim | curon | kurun, -on | kusum | curen | kurin | kysa |
| 2 | ċēosað | kiosad, -t | kjósið | ċēosen | kiosen, -an | kjósið | curon | kurun, -on | kusuð | curen | kurin | kysir |
| 3 | ċēosað | kiosad, -t | kjósa | ċēosen | kiosen, -an | kjóði | curon | kurun, -on | kusu | curen | kurin | kysi |
Weak Verbs:
| Person | present indicative | present subjunctive | past indicative | past subjunctive | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | Old English | Old Saxon | Old Norse | |
| 1 sg | þoliʒe ('endure') | tholon | þoli ('endure', Infinitive: 'þola') | þoliʒe | tholo(ie), -ogea | þoli | þolode | tholoda, -e | þoldi | þolode | tholodi | þyldi |
| 2 | þolast | tholos | þolir | þoliʒe | tholos | þolir | þolodest | tholodes, öas | þoldir | þolode | tholodis | þyldir |
| 3 | þolað | tholod, -t | þolir | þoliʒe | tholo(ie), -ogea | þoli | þolode | tholoda, -e | þoldi | þolode | tholodi | þyldi |
| 1 pl | þoliað | tholod, -oiad, -t | þolum | þoliʒen | tholo(ian) | þolum | þolodon | tholodun | þoldum | þoloden | tholodin | þyldum |
| 2 | þoliað | tholod, -oiad, -t | þolið | þoliʒen | tholo(ian) | þolið | þolodon | tholodun | þolduð | þoloden | tholodin | þylduð |
| 3 | þoliað | tholod, -oiad, -t | þola | þoliʒen | tholo(ian) | þoli | þolodon | tholodun | þoldu | þoloden | tholodin | þyldu |
Word formation
[edit]In Old Sazon it is easy to observe clear results of the process of derivation from classes within the language despite their diachronic (concerned with the way in which something, especially language, has developed and evolved through time) and synchronic (concerned with something, especially a language, as it exists at on in time) status. A small explanation of the most common examples of some of all the prefixes and suffixes used in Old Saxon; in particular, from nouns, adjectives and verbs.
| Nouns; suffix - skepi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Types vs. Tokens | ||||||
| Folcskepi | 17 | |||||
| Gumskepi | 10 | |||||
| Heriskepi | 9 | |||||
| Boskepi | 5 | |||||
| Geuuitskepi | 8 | |||||
| Fîunskepi | 3 | |||||
| Mâgskepi | 3 | |||||
| Erlskepi | 3 | |||||
| Gibodskepi | 4 | |||||
| Iungarskepi | 2 | |||||
| Landskepi | 6 | |||||
| Liudskepi | 3 | |||||
| Uuerdskepi | 2 | |||||
| Bedskepi | 1 | |||||
| Brôderskepi | 1 | |||||
| Drothskepi | 1 | |||||
| Fûundskepi | 1 | |||||
| Friundskepi | 1 | |||||
| Geboskepi | 1 | |||||
| Geuuitskepi | 1 | |||||
| Nîdiskepi | 1 | |||||
| Theganskepi | 1 | |||||
This shows the twenty-three types of the suffix -skepi with a total amount of eighty-two tokens. As the tokens display, there are some of these words that are more frequent throughout the Helîand. Also, the variety of tokens of this precise suffix is alarmingly high. It’s the suffix with more types of all the suffix that make nouns or another type of word.
| Adjectives; suffix -lîk | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Types vs. Tokens | ||||||
| Huuilîk | 1 | |||||
| Huilîk | 19 | |||||
| Sulîke | 43 | |||||
| Suilîken | 1 | |||||
| Suilîkero | 1 | |||||
| Gehuilîkes | 15 | |||||
| Gehuuilîkes | 7 | |||||
| Gelîk | 6 | |||||
| Kelîk | 1 | |||||
| Uuîslîk | 4 | |||||
| Mislîke | 3 | |||||
| Sedlîkes | 2 | |||||
This suffix has an incredible amount of types (fifteen) and one hundred and three tokens, some of them used really frequently at the Hêliand.
| Verbs; prefix af- | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Types vs. Tokens | ||||||
| Afhaben | 4 | |||||
| Afhobun | 4 | |||||
| Afgeben | 3 | |||||
| Afhebbien | 2 | |||||
| Afsoubun | 2 | |||||
| Afgrundi | 1 | |||||
| Afstâd | 3 | |||||
| Afstanden | 1 | |||||
Here we can see that when it comes to verbs there are not as much as types. Also, the tokens are not really high either, and that's because Old Saxon has an enormous variety of verbs (as it is explained before).
Comparative syntax
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Lexicon
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See also
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