[go: nahoru, domu]
Wikipedia

United Wa State Army

The United Wa State Army (Parauk: Kru' Naing' Rob Rom' Hak Tiex Praog, simplified Chinese: 佤邦联合军; traditional Chinese: 佤邦聯合軍; pinyin: Wǎbāng Liánhéjūn; Burmese: ဝပြည် သွေးစည်းညီညွတ်ရေး တပ်မတော်, IPA: [wa̰ pjì θwésí ɲìɲʊʔjé taʔmədɔ̀]), abbreviated as the UWSA or the UWS Army, is the military wing of the United Wa State Party (UWSP), the de facto ruling party of Wa State (officially known as the Wa Self-Administered Division) in Myanmar. It is a well-equipped ethnic minority army of an estimated 20,000[1]–30,000[2] Wa soldiers, led by Bao Youxiang. The UWSA was formed after the collapse of the armed wing of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in 1989.[5]

United Wa State Army
Kru' Naing' Rob Rom' Hak Tiex Praog
佤邦联合军
ဝပြည် သွေးစည်းညီညွတ်ရေး တပ်မတော်
LeadersBao Youxiang
Zhao Zhongdang
Bao Aichan
Dates of operation17 April 1989 (1989-04-17) – present
HeadquartersPangkham, Myanmar
Active regionsWa Self-Administered Division
(Wa State)
IdeologyWa nationalism[1]
Size30,000[2]
Part ofUnited Wa State Party
AlliesState allies

Non-state allies

OpponentsState opponents

Non-state opponents

Battles and warsInternal conflict in Myanmar

The UWSA announced its territory as the "Wa State Government Special Administrative Region" on 1 January 2009.[6] The de facto President is Bao Youxiang, and the Vice President is Xiao Minliang.[7][8] Although the Government of Myanmar does not officially recognise the sovereignty of Wa State, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) has frequently allied with the UWSA to fight against Shan nationalist militia groups, such as the Shan State Army (RCSS).[9]

Despite being de facto independent from Myanmar, the Wa State officially recognizes Myanmar's sovereignty over all of its territory.[10] In 1989 the two parties signed a ceasefire agreement, and in 2013 signed a peace deal.[11] As the largest non-state armed group in Myanmar, it has effectively led the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC) since 2017, representing nearly every pre-2021 non-ceasefire signatory armed groups.[12] In not seeking independence or secession, UWSA is unlike most of the ethnic armed organizations in Myanmar.[13]: 4 

History

edit

On 17 April 1989, ethnic Wa soldiers, among other groups, split from the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in a mutiny and ended the long-running Communist insurgency in Burma.[14] On 9 May 1989, the Burmese government signed a cease-fire agreement with UWSA, formally ending the conflict.[15] The United Wa State Party was formed as a merger of the Burma National United Party and the non-communist Wa National Council in November 1989, following the CPB mutiny in spring of 1989.[12]

The UWSA is supported by China, who gives the UWSA more support than to the Myanmar government.[16]

Until 1996 the United Wa State Army was involved in a conflict against the Shan Mong Tai Army led by drug kingpin Khun Sa which suited the objectives of the Tatmadaw in the area. During this conflict the Wa army occupied areas close to the Thai border, ending up with the control of two separate swathes of territory north and south of Kengtung.[17] UWSA is one of the 17 armed ceased fire groups that attended long National Convention orchestrated by Myanmar military.[18] In 1990s the Wa Women's Association established an orphanage in Pangkham for children's whose parents were killed in fighting between UWSA and Shan forces.[19]

In August 2009, the United Wa State Army became involved in the Kokang incident, a violent conflict with Burma's military junta's Myanmar Armed Forces (Tatmadaw). This was the largest outbreak of fighting between ethnic armies and government troops since the signing of the cease-fire 20 years earlier.[1] Myanmar signed a peace deal with the UWSA in 2013 in the leadup to the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA).[11] However, the UWSA did not sign the NCA in 2015.

In April 2017, China helped the UWSA establish a seven-member alliance called the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC), after the demise of another alliance, the United Nationalities Federal Council, in the wake of the NCA. Today, the UWSA maintains close links with FPNCC partners like the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA), the Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army. The MNDAA is a Kokang CPB splinter group and both the Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army fought alongside the MNDAA in Kokang in 2015. These three groups, among others, receive Chinese weapons from the UWSA either as gifts or purchases.[12]

The United Wa State Army also works with the ULFA-ATF, an Assam resistance group which launches attacks in India through mobile bases in Myanmar.[20][21] In November 2023, the UWSA vowed to use force against armed incursions from both sides in the Myanmar civil war after Wa State was declared a neutral zone.[22]

Leadership

edit
 
Bao Youxiang, Commander-in-Chief of UWSA

The Burma National United Party (BNUP) and, later, the United Wa State Army (UWSA) was founded and led by Chao Ngi Lai, also spelt as Zhao Nyi-lai. After his stroke in 1995, Bao Youxiang, the military commander of the UWSA, took over leadership, while Chao remained the General-Secretary of the United Wa State Party (UWSP) until he died at the age of 70 in 2009.[12] Ai Xiaoxue, as the founder of the Wa National Council (WNC), was also instrumental in the merger establishing the UWSA with the BNUP. He formed the WNC with Maha Hsang Wiang Ngeun, his brother-in-law, in 1984. His group was the nucleus of UWSA's 171 Military Region near the Thai border. He died at the age of 78 in Mandalay on 29 October 2011.[23] Today, Bao Youxiang remains the Commander-in-Chief, running the UWSA with his brothers Bao Youyi and Bao Youliang. Youyi, who became the deputy-general secretary of the UWSP in 2005,[24] holds an important position in the army. Youliang manages the headquarters of the northern Wa hills in Möng Mao[12]

The first Deputy Commander-in-Chief was Li Ziru, an ethnically Chinese former Red Guard volunteer. He remained with the CPB through the 1970s when many Chinese CPB members returned to China and eventually joined the UWSA serving until his death in 2005. It is plausible that Li and other ethnic Chinese remained in the CPB splinter groups because China wanted to maintain influence even after the mutiny of 1989.[12] The group's Deputy Commander-in-Chief today is Zhao Zhongdang.[25] In 2022, due to the advanced age of both Bao Youxiang and Zhao, Bao Youxiang's nephew Bao Ai Chan was promoted to be Deputy Commander-in-Chief alongside Zhao, who retains his position. The 2022 reshuffle will not largely change the administration and leadership of the UWSA, but signals a lesson learnt from the 1989 CPB leadership crises.[26]

The foreign affairs spokesperson role that Li Ziru played has been taken over by Zhao Guoan, another ethnically Chinese veteran. He took part in the Union Peace Conference – 21st Century Panglong peace talks in 2017 and 2018. Although he is from Yunnan, he was the only delegate comfortable speaking Burmese among the ethnic armies.[12]

In October 2023, Deputy Commander-in-Chief Bao Ai Chan was arrested while in China, in a string of arrests and extraditions relating to over 1,000 Chinese citizens involved in cyber scams in connection with Wa State. The UWSA has reportedly appointed a successor but does not comment on the arrest.[27]

Territory

edit
 
Areas under the control of the UWSA in 2015. The southern sector is not part of the traditional Wa territory but granted in 1989 by the then Burmese government for UWSA's cooperation in the war against Khun Sa.[28]

The towns of Pangkham and Mong Pawk are within the area of this special region.[5] The UWSA negotiated a cease-fire agreement with the Burmese military in the 1990s, and currently backs a counterinsurgency strategy of the Myanmar Army against the Shan State Army (RCSS) (RCSS/SSA).[29] The UWSA defied the military regime's recent demand to disarm and participate in the 2010 elections, and instead proposed to declare the territory under their control as a special autonomous region.[30]

According to 2008 constitution, six townships are designated as the Wa Self-Administered Division. Those are Mongmao, Pangwaun, Namphan, Pangkham (Pangsang), Hopang and Matman Township. Although Mong Pawk is not part of it, but part of Mong Yang Township, the UWSA was strongly against to give away that area from its control because it serves as a link with its ally, the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) in Mongla. Hopang and Matman are not under UWSA control.[25] UWSA announced its territory as Wa State Government Special Administrative Region in January 2009.[31]

Business operations

edit

The cease-fire agreement allowed the United Wa State Army to freely expand their logistical operations with the Burmese military, including the trafficking of drugs to neighbouring Thailand and Laos.[32] The Wa have used revenue generated from the sale of drugs to finance political and economic goals, like weapons and hospitals.[33]

Illicit business

edit

Using commercial concessions granted through favorable relations with General Khin Nyut, the UWSA operated illicit enterprises in the 1990s via affiliated businesspeople and enterprises.[13]: 20 

Drug trafficking

edit

In August 1990, government officials began drafting a plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State.[34] According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) became wanted by the Chinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went to Cangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into the international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)."[35] However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups.

In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005.[34] With the help of the United Nations and the Chinese government, many opium farmers in Wa State shifted to the production of rubber and tea. However, some poppy farmers continued to cultivate the flower outside of Wa State.[36]

The United States government Drug Enforcement Administration labelled the UWSA as a narcotic trafficking organisation on 29 May 2003. On 3 November 2005, The Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control listed 11 individuals and 16 companies that were "part of the financial and commercial network of designated significant foreign narcotics trafficker Wei Hsueh-kang and the United Wa State Army (UWSA)." The UWSA is said to be the largest drug-producing organisation in Southeast Asia. The UWSP on its part blamed both the Ne Win military government and the CPB for using the Wa as "pawns in the violent destructive games" and encouraging them to grow the opium poppy.[37]

The opium poppy harvest had increased since the former drug baron and warlord Lo Hsing Han managed to rebuild his drug empire after he became the intermediary for cease-fire agreements between the military intelligence chief Khin Nyunt and the Kokang and Wa insurgents who had rebelled against and toppled the Communist leadership in 1989.[38] In addition to the traditional Golden Triangle export of opiates, production has diversified to methamphetamine, or yaa baa, which is cheaper and easier to manufacture than heroin.[39][40] Thai authorities have denounced methamphetamine production, trafficking, and consumption as a threat to national security. It denied involvement in the Mekong incident of 5 November 2011.[further explanation needed][41]

Poppy cultivation has declined in both northern Laos and the Wa region partly as a result of a ban imposed by the UWSP in 2005.[42] In 1999, Bao Youxiang ordered a forced relocation, away from the poppy fields, of six northern Wa districts south to mainly Shan and Lahu areas.[43] The World Food Program (WFP) and China also provided emergency food assistance to former poppy farmers. Chinese criminal organisations in the area however may have simply switched the production line from heroin to amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) such as yaa baa.[42]

Other operations

edit

Wei Hsueh-kang founded the Hong Pang Group in 1998 with revenues from the drug trade after taking advantage of the privileges offered in the cease-fire deal by Khin Nyunt. Its position in the country's economy, not just the Wa State, is reflected by the multitude of businesses it owns and controls in construction, agriculture, gems and minerals, petroleum, electronics and communications, distilleries and department stores. Hong Pang Group is based at Pangkham with offices also in Yangon, Mandalay, Lashio, Tachilek and Mawlamyine[44] and minor bases in Sankang and Khailong.[45] UWSA also operated its own bank in the past.[46][47]

Ho Chun Ting (also known as Aik Haw and Hsiao Haw), the son-in-law of Bao Youxiang, is the principal owner and managing director of Yangon Airways and chairman of Tetkham Co Ltd that runs a chain of hotels. Close to Khin Nyunt and several other generals in the junta, he was also involved in gems auctions and several large construction projects with the Yangon City Development Council. He was reported to have fled to Pangkham following the arrest of his known associates in a drug-related offence in January 2009.[48] Aik Haw was included in the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List published by the US Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control on 25 November 2008.[49]

Former Thai Premier Thaksin Shinawatra and the Thai military have a long-standing business relationship with the UWSA.[50]

Despite publicly declaring neutrality, the UWSA allegedly supplies weapons (with the exception of MANPADS) to anti-Junta groups such as the Three Brotherhood Alliance.[51]

Relationship with China

edit

UWSA has benefited from long-standing political and military ties to China, and has a close relationship with China's security agencies. Most significantly, this provides China leverage inside Burma allowing it to push other issues like the Sino-Myanmar pipelines. Beijing's official delegate is only one layer of its approach to diplomacy with not just the central government but also the various ethnic armies along the China–Myanmar border[12] China's involvement in the UWSA's peace process aims to create stability for its multiple large infrastructure investments[52] and keep its natural resource trade across the border protected.[33]

The Chinese government uses former CPB forces like UWSA as proxies within Burma, and works to ensure the drugs they produce are not smuggled into China. Wa State has benefited from substantial Chinese tourism, turning Mong La into a Chinese tourist hub.[12] China also helped the UWSA establish themselves as the de facto leaders of the FPNCC. The Chinese also supply military hardware, arms, and training to the UWSA.[4]

Deployment

edit

The United Wa State Army (UWSA) has five "divisions" deployed along the Thai-Burma border:

  1. 778th Division commanded by Ta Marn
  2. 772nd Division commanded by Ta Hsong
  3. 775th Division commanded by Yang Guojong
  4. 248th Division commanded by Ta Hsang
  5. 518th Division commanded by Li Hsarm-nab

On the China-Burma border are stationed another three "divisions":

  1. 318th Division
  2. 418th Division
  3. 468th Division[53]

The United Wa State Army has 30,000 active service men with a 10,000 strong auxiliary force.[54] It is one of the largest cease fire groups. Monthly salary is only 60 CNY (US$7.5).[55] UWSA had clashes with the Thai Army in Mar–May 2002.[56]

Arms supply

edit

According to Jane's Intelligence Review in April 2008, China has become the main source of arms to the United Wa State Army, displacing traditional black market sources in South East Asia such as Thailand and Cambodia.[57] Arms transfers to the UWSA from China are directed from the highest level in Beijing.[33]

Jane's reported in 2001 that the UWSA had acquired HN-5N surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) from China as part of the build-up near the Thai border where they were reported to be operating 40–50 laboratories manufacturing yaa baa.[58] In November 2014, Janes further reported that the UWSA have acquired the FN-6 Surface-to-air missile to supplant the HN-5N in service,[59] which was promptly denied by the UWSA.[60] It is also the middleman between Chinese arms manufacturers and other insurgent groups in Myanmar.[61] By 2012, Chinese support had increased to the point of supplying armoured vehicles such as the 6 × 6 PTL-02 assault gun being sighted in Pangkham.[62]

On 29 April 2013, Janes IHS reported that several Mil Mi-17 helicopters armed with TY-90 air-to-air missiles were supplied to UWSA by China.[63] The allegations were dismissed by China, Thai military sources, other Myanmar ethnic sources and the UWSA themselves.[64][65] In 2015 IHS Jane's reported that UWSA members had been photographed training with Chinese Type 96 122 mm howitzers and HJ-8 ATGMs.[66]

A Jane's report in December 2008 stated that the UWSA had turned to arms production to supplement their income from arms and drug trafficking, and started a small arms production line for AK-47s.[29][67]

Conscription policies

edit

The UWSA requires that at least one male in each household serve in either the UWSA or Wa State administration.[13]: 180  Larger families are obligated to provide two males for the army or administration.[13]: 180 

edit
UWSP/UWSA
  • UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies 
    UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies
  • UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies 
    UWSA soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies

References

edit

Citations

edit
  1. ^ a b c Johnson, Tim (29 August 2009). "China Urges Burma to Bridle Ethnic Militia Uprising at Border". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 15 September 2010.
  2. ^ a b "UWSP/UWSA » Myanmar Peace Monitor". 6 June 2013. Archived from the original on 11 June 2023.
  3. ^ "Myanmar's Wa Army Vows Neutrality in Fight Between Regime, Ethnic All…".
  4. ^ a b Davis, Anthony (22 February 2022). "Wa an early winner of Myanmar's post-coup war". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  5. ^ a b Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (24 January 2004). "Myanmar's Wa: Likely Losers in the Opium War". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 22 September 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2006.
  6. ^ "UWSA declares autonomous region". Archived from the original on 2 March 2011.
  7. ^ "A United Wa State Army (UWSA) delegation led by Vice President Xiao Minliang, Bao Youliang and Zhao Guo-ang left Panghsang for Lashio today". democracy for burma. 29 September 2011. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  8. ^ S.H.A.N. "Wa revamping road system". Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  9. ^ "The United Wa State Army's uncertain future". PROJECT AK-47. Strategic Forecasting Inc. 22 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  10. ^ 2011-10-13, 缅甸佤邦竟然是一个山寨版的中国 Archived 26 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 军情观察
  11. ^ a b "Burma signs treaty with Wa ethnic group". BBC. 13 July 2013. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lintner, Bertil (April 2019). The United Wa State Army and Burma's Peace Process (PDF) (Report). United States Institute of Peace. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
  13. ^ a b c d Ong, Andrew (2023). Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-7071-5. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b.
  14. ^ Kramer, Tom (April 2009). "Twenty Years on, the Wa-Burmese Cease-fire looks shakier". Transnational Institute. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
  15. ^ "Cease-Fire Agreements with the Junta – Women Excluded from the Process" (PDF). Global Justice Center. Retrieved 19 February 2012.[permanent dead link]
  16. ^ "UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, Myanmar (Burma)". Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  17. ^ S.H.A.N. "Wa will not budge from Thai border areas". Archived from the original on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  18. ^ "Mizzima News: UWSA defy junta's pressure, refuse to sign pre-written statement". Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  19. ^ Ong, Andrew; Steinmüller, Hans (2021). "Communities of care: Public donations, development assistance, and independent philanthropy in the Wa State of Myanmar". Critique of Anthropology. 41 (1): 65–87. doi:10.1177/0308275X20974099. ISSN 0308-275X.
  20. ^ Dholabhai, Nishit (31 May 2012). "June date for Ulfa dialogue". The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013.
  21. ^ "Giriraj Bhattacharjee, ULFA-ATF: Insignificant force?". Eurasia Review. 19 June 2012. Archived from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  22. ^ "Myanmar's Wa Army Vows Neutrality in Fight Between Regime, Ethnic Alliance". The Irrawaddy. 1 November 2023. Archived from the original on 1 November 2023.
  23. ^ Chiangrai Times Archived 25 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ "Jane's World Insurgency and Terrorism: United Wa State Army". Archived from the original on 13 January 2013.
  25. ^ a b S.H.A.N. "Shan Herald – Wa leader: UWSA able to defend itself". Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  26. ^ "Myanmar's Most Powerful Ethnic Army Reshuffles Leadership: What Does it Mean?". The Irrawaddy. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  27. ^ "China's Crackdown on Cyber Scams in Myanmar Nets UWSA Deputy Chief". The Irrawaddy. 19 October 2023.
  28. ^ ""金三角"毒王 让缅、泰差点打起来". Archived from the original on 27 February 2019.
  29. ^ a b Lawi Weng (16 December 2008). "AK-47s – Made in Wa State". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
  30. ^ Lawi Weng. "UWSP Proposes Wa Autonomous Region". The Irrawaddy magazine, 5 January 2009. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
  31. ^ Mizzima Archived 13 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  32. ^ "As Burma Reforms, Its Narcotics Trade Might Be Worsening". The Atlantic. 18 February 2012. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
  33. ^ a b c Lintner, Bertil (March 2021). The Wa of Myanmar and China's Quest for Global Dominance. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. ISBN 9786162151705.
  34. ^ a b A Reporter's Personal Experience with the Wa State in the Golden Triangle: A Formidable Army Propped up with Drugs. Sun Xiaoyun; Edited by Huo Jihe. June 26, 2007
  35. ^ China's dangerous neighbor Phoenix Weekly 2003
  36. ^ China’s Opium Substitution Policy in Burma and Laos - TransNational Institute
  37. ^ "UWSP:The Bondage of Opium – a proposal and a plea". ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2006.
  38. ^ Bertil Lintner. "The Golden Triangle Opium Trade: An Overview" (PDF). Asia Pacific Media Services, March 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
  39. ^ Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud & Meissonnier, Joël (2004). "Yaa Baa. Production, traffic, and consumption of methamphetamine in Mainland Southeast Asia". Singapore University Press. Archived from the original on 22 September 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2006.
  40. ^ Davis, Anthony (19 November 2004). "Thai drugs smuggling networks reform". Jane's Information Group. Archived from the original on 8 March 2005. Retrieved 5 March 2009.
  41. ^ S.H.A.N. "Shanland – NDAA and UWSA deny involvement in Mekong incident". Archived from the original on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  42. ^ a b Kramer, Tom (November 2008). "Burmese Daze". The Irrawaddy magazine. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
  43. ^ Marshall, Andrew; Davis, Anthony (16 December 2002). "Soldiers of Fortune". TIME asia. Archived from the original on 10 December 2002. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
  44. ^ "The Hong Pang Group". Bangkok Post. 6 July 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2009.[permanent dead link]
  45. ^ Rangoon’s “War on Drugs” in Shan State Archived 30 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ "Thailand Blames Burma Junta for Meth Epidemic". Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  47. ^ National Strategy Page 3 Archived 11 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ Min Lwin. "Wa Businessman Flees Drug Charges". The Irrawaddy, 18 February 2009. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
  49. ^ "Financial Institution Letter" (PDF). Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). 25 November 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2009.[permanent dead link]
  50. ^ "Assassination claim manipulated for political gain". The Nation. 13 November 2012. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  51. ^ Bertil Lintner (6 November 2023). "Has China Lost Control of Ethnic Armies in Myanmar's War-Torn Borderland?". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. The UWSA has not passed on the most sophisticated of its supplies from China, such as surface-to-air missiles, but the Brotherhood Alliance apparently had enough guns and ammunition to be able to carry out their series of attacks, which seem to have been astonishingly successful.
  52. ^ Liu, John (17 November 2021). "China Warms Up to Myanmar's Generals". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023.
  53. ^ "Transfer of Wa commander raises questions". S.H.A.N. 9 June 2009. Archived from the original on 9 August 2010. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
  54. ^ "WikiLeaks Cables Show China's Support for UWSA". Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  55. ^ S.H.A.N. "United Wa State Army (UWSA) payroll still going Communist way". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  56. ^ "Talk of reopened border stirs bad memories for army". The Nation. 27 August 2012. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  57. ^ Pubby, Manu (22 May 2008). "China emerging as main source of arms to N-E rebels: Jane's Review". Indianexpress. Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2008.
  58. ^ Davis, Anthony (28 March 2001). "Myanmar heat turned up with SAMs from China". Jane's Information Group. Retrieved 5 March 2009. [dead link]
  59. ^ Davis, Anthony (18 November 2014). "UWSA fielding Chinese FN-6 MANPADS". Jane's Information Group. Archived from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  60. ^ "United Wa State Army Denies Anti-Aircraft Purchase". The Irrawaddy. 20 November 2014. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  61. ^ Linn, Zin (7 December 2012). "Can Burma Influence Wa Army to Abide by its Constitution?". Asian Correspondent. Archived from the original on 13 September 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  62. ^ Schearf, Daniel; Pike, John (25 January 2013). "With Burma in Mind, China Quietly Supports Wa Rebels". globalsecurity.org. Voice of America. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
  63. ^ "China 'sends armed helicopters to Myanmar separatists' - IHS Jane's 360". www.janes.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  64. ^ "After Chinese Arms Allegations, UWSA Shows Off 'Thai' Military Hardware". The Irrawaddy. 14 May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 September 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
  65. ^ "Doubts cast on Wa helicopter rumors". Mizzima News. 20 June 2013. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  66. ^ Davis, Anthony. "Wa army fielding new Chinese artillery, ATGMs". IHS Jane's Defence Weekly. Archived from the original on 16 August 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
  67. ^ Lawi Weng. "Armed Insurgents in Burma Face Shortage of Ammunition". The Irrawaddy 22 December 2008. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2008.

Sources

edit
  • "U.S. Links 11 Individuals, 16 Companies to Burma Drug Syndicate." Distributed by the Bureau of International Information Programs, US Department of State. 4 November 2005.
  • Jack Picone. "A Gentler War on Drugs." Utne, September–October 2005, pp. 68–71; originally in Colors magazine (Winter 2004–05)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Wa_State_Army&oldid=1244405823"