Utilisateur:Wriglgle/Brouillon
Les femmes dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale ont occupé une variété de rôles de pays en pays. La Seconde Guerre mondiale constituait un conflit global sans précédent; l'urgence absolue de mobiliser une population entière à rendu l'expansion du rôle de la femme inévitable. Le dur travail des femmes était symbolisé aux États-Unis d'Amérique par le concept de Rosie the Riveter, une femme travaillant dans une usine performant ce qui était considéré le travail d'un homme. Avec l'expansion de cet horizon d'opportunité et de confiance, et avec l'étendue capacité que beaucoup de femmes pouvaient maintenant donner à un travail volontaire et payé, les rôles des femmes dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale devinrent plus approfondies que dans la Première Guerre mondiale. En 1945, plus de 2.2 million de femmes travaillaient dans les industries de guerre, construisaient des bateaux, des engins aériens, des véhicules, et des armes. Les femmes travaillaient aussi dans des usines, des fermes et plantations de munitions, mais aussi conduisaient des camions, apportaient un support logistique pour des soldats et entraient dans des zones professionnelles qui étaient précédemment réservées aux hommes. Dans les pays Alliés ds milliers de femmes s’engageaient comme infirmières servant au front. Des milliers d'autres rejoignaient des milices défensives dans leurs villes où leurs villages et il y eut une grande augmentation dans le nombre de femmes travaillant comme militaires , particulièrement dans l'armée Rouge de l'Union Soviétique.
Durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, autour de 400.000 femmes américaines ont servi avec les forces armées et plus de 460 -- certaines sources affirment que les chiffres sont plus proches de 543 -- ont perdu leurs vies en conséquence de la guerre, dont 16 de tirs ennemis. Les femmes ont été reconnues comme une part permanente des forces militaires des États-Unis d'Amérique après la guerre grâce au passage de l'Acte d'Intégration des Services Armées des Femmes de 1948.
Plusieurs centaines de milliers de femmes ont servi au combat, principalement dans les unités anti-aériennes. Les États-Unis d'Amérique ont décidé de ne pas utilisé les femmes sur le terrain car l'opinion publique ne pouvait pas le tolérer.
Beaucoup de femmes ont servi dans la résistance en France, en Italie, et en Pologne, et dans le SOE Brittanique et l'OSS Américain qui les a aidé.
D'autres femmes, appelées les femmes de réconfort, étaient forcées de servir comme esclaves sexuelles par l'Armée Impériale Japonaise avant et pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.
Autour de 2 million de femmes Juives ont été tuées pendant la Shoah, et les Nazis ont aussi tué d'autres femmes qui appartenaient à des groupes contre qui ils commettaient des génocides, telles que les femmes handicapées et les femmes Romanichel.
Women in World War II took on a variety of roles from country to country. World War II involved global conflict on an unprecedented scale; the absolute urgency of mobilizing the entire population made the expansion of the role of women inevitable. The hard skilled labor of women was symbolized in the United States of America by the concept of Rosie the Riveter, a woman factory laborer performing what was previously considered man's work. With this expanded horizon of opportunity and confidence, and with the extended skill base that many women could now give to paid and voluntary work, women's roles in World War II were even more extensive than in the First World War. By 1945, more than 2.2 million women were working in the war industries, building ships, aircraft, vehicles, and weaponry. Women also worked in factories, munitions plants and farms, and also drove trucks, provided logistic support for soldiers and entered professional areas of work that were previously the preserve of men. In the Allied countries thousands of women enlisted as nurses serving on the front lines. Thousands of others joined defensive militias at home and there was a great increase in the number of women serving for the military itself, particularly in the Soviet Union's Red Army.
During World War II, approximately 400,000 U.S. women served with the armed forces and more than 460 — some sources say the figure is closer to 543 — lost their lives as a result of the war, including 16 from enemy fire. Women became officially recognized as a permanent part of the U.S. armed forces after the war with the passing of the Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948[1].
Several hundred thousand women served in combat roles, especially in anti-aircraft units. The U.S. decided not to use women in combat because public opinion would not tolerate it[2].
Many women served in the resistances of France, Italy, and Poland, and in the British SOE and American OSS which aided these.
Other Women , called comfort women, were forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II.
Approximately 2 million Jewish women in the Holocaust were killed, and the Nazis also killed other women who belonged to groups they were committing genocide against, such as women with disabilities and Roma women.
Partial timeline (Chronologie partielle)
[modifier | modifier le code]- 1938: L'Acte de Réserve Navale (USA) permet l'inscription de femmes qualifiées comme infirmières.
- 1941: Le service féminin de l'Armée Canadienne est établi.
- 1942: Le service féminin Royal Naval Canadien est crée.
- 1942: Le programme de réserve de sauveteur Américain féminin (les femmes appartenant à cette catégorie étaient surnommées les ''SPARs'' )a été établi.
- 1942: La secrétaire militaire de troisième classe Dorothy Tuttle est devenu la première SPAR inscrite lorsqu'elle s'est inscrite dans la Réserve de sauveteur féminin le 7 Décembre 1942.
- 1942: La Réserve du Corps des Marines féminin (MCWR) a été autorisé par le Congrès des États-Unis en Juillet 1942 afin de soulager les Marines masculins de leur responsabilité pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.
- Le président des États-Unis Franklin D Roosevelt a signé le Droit Public 689 qui a crée le programme de réserve de la marine féminine du 30 Juillet 1942.
- 1942: Le Corps Auxiliaire de l'Armée féminine des États-Unis (WAAC) a été fondé.
- 1942: Le nom du Corps Auxiliaire de l'Armée féminine des États-Unis (WAAC) est officiellement changé et devient le Corps d'Armée féminin (WAC).
- 1943: Le Corps d'Armée féminin des États-Unis recrute une unité de femmes Chinoise-Américaine afin de servir dans lArmée de l'Air en tant que ''Air WACs'' appelée "Madame Chiang Kai-Shek Air WAC unit." Les deux premières femmes à être inscrites dans l'unité étaient Hazel (Toy) Nakashima et Jit Wong, toutes les deux étaient Californiennes.
- 1944: Le Droit Public 238 a accordé un classement militaire complet aux membres du Corps des infirmières de la Marine, qui étaient à l'époque toutes des femmes.
- 1938: The (U.S.) Naval Reserve Act permits the enlistment of qualified women as nurses[3].
- 1941: The Canadian Women’s Army Corps was established[4].
- 1942: The Women’s Royal Canadian Naval Service was created[5].
- 1942: The Women's Reserve of the U. S. Coast Guard Reserve program (officially nicknamed the "SPARs"), was first established in 1942[6].
- 1942: YN3 Dorothy Tuttle became the first SPAR enlistee when she enlisted in the Coast Guard Women's Reserve on the 7th of December, 1942[6].
- 1942: The Marine Corps Women's Reserve (MCWR) was authorized by the U.S Congress in July 1942 to relieve male Marines for combat duty in World War II.[7]
- 1942: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Public Law 689 creating the Navy’s women reserve program on 30 July *1942[8].
- 1942: The U.S. Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was founded[9].
- 1942: The name of the U.S. Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) is officially changed to Women's Army Corps (WAC)[10].
- 1943: The U.S. Women's Army Corps recruited a unit of Chinese-American women to serve with the Army Air Forces as "Air WACs," referred to as the "Madame Chiang Kai-Shek Air WAC unit." The first two women to enlist in the unit were Hazel (Toy) Nakashima and Jit Wong, both of California[11].
- 1944: Public Law 238 granted full military rank to members of the U.S. Navy Nurse Corps, who were then all women[8].
Comfort women (Femmes de réconfort)
[modifier | modifier le code]Les Femmes de Confort étaient des femmes et des jeunes filles ayant été transformées en esclaves sexuelles par l'armée impériale du Japon avant et pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Le nom "Femmes de Confort" est une traduction de l'euphémisme Japonais ianfu (慰安婦) et du terme Coréen wianbu (위안부). Ianfu est un euphémisme de shōfu (娼婦) qui veut dire "prostituée(s)".
L'estimation du nombre de femmes impliquées varie, allants de 20,000 jusqu'à 360,000 et même jusqu'à 410,000, selon des sources Chinoises; le chiffre exact est toujours recherché et ((débattu)). De nombreuses femmes venaient de pays occupés, incluant la Corée, la Chine, et les Philippines, d'autres femmes provenant de Birmanie, Thaïlande, Vietnam, Malaisie, Taïwan (qui à l'époque était dépendant du Japon), Indonésie (à l'époque : les Indes orientales néerlandaises), Timor de l'est (puis Timor Portugaise), et d'autres territoires occupés par le Japon ont servies dans les "stations de confort" militaires. Ces stations étaient situées au Japon, en Chine, aux Philippines, en Indonésie, puis en Malaisie, en Thaïlande, en Birmanie, en Nouvelle Guinée, à Hong Kong, à Macau, et en Indonésie française. Un plus petit nombre de femmes d'origines Européennes des Pays-Bas et d'Australie étaient aussi impliquées.
Selon des témoignages, de jeunes femmes prises en garde à vue par les pays Impériaux Japonais étaient enlevées de chez elles. Dans la plupart des cas, ces femmes étaient leurrées par des promesses d'emplois dans des usines ou des restaurants; une fois recrutées, ces femmes étaient incarcérées dans des stations de confort dans des pays étrangers.
Comfort women were women and girls forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II.[12][13][14] The name "comfort women" is a translation of the Japanese euphemism ianfu (慰安婦) and the similar Korean term wianbu (위안부).[15][16] Ianfu is a euphemism for shōfu (娼婦) whose meaning is "prostitute(s)"[17].
Estimates vary as to how many women were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 [18] to as high as 360,000 to 410,000, in Chinese sources;[19] the exact numbers are still being researched and debated.[20] Many of the women were from occupied countries, including Korea, China, and the Philippines,[21] although women from Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan (then a Japanese dependency), Indonesia (then the Dutch East Indies), East Timor (then Portuguese Timor),[22][23] and other Japanese-occupied territories were used for military "comfort stations". Stations were located in Japan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, then Malaya, Thailand, Burma, New Guinea, Hong Kong, Macau, and French Indochina.[24] A smaller number of women of European origin from the Netherlands and Australia were also involved.
According to testimony, young women from countries in Imperial Japanese custody were abducted from their homes. In many cases, women were also lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants; once recruited, the women were incarcerated in comfort stations in foreign lands[25].
Canada
[modifier | modifier le code]Au moment où la guerre est devenu visiblement inévitable à la fin des années 1930, les femmes Canadiennes se sentaient obligées d'aider la lutte. En Octobre 1938, le Service Volontaire des Femmes fut établi en Victoria, BC. Bientôt, toutes les provinces et tous les territoires ont suivi cette initiative et des groupes de volontarisme similaires émergèrent. "Les maris, les frères, les pères, les compagnons, s'alliaient, faisaient quelque chose pour aider à gagner la guerre. Alors pourquoi pas les femmes?( \ ?)". En plus de la Croix Rouge, plusieurs corps de volontaires s'étaient désignés eux-mêmes après des groupes auxiliaires de Grande-Bretagne. Ces corps avaient des uniformes, avaient des manœuvres de défilé et avaient quelques entrainements au fusil. Il était clair qu'un système de gouvernement unifié était bénéfique pour le corps. Les volontaires de la Colombie Brittanique donnaient deux dollars chacun afin de payer un porte-parole qui irait parler aux politiciens à Ottawa. Bien que tous les politiciens paraissaient compatissant à la cause, il devenait 'prématuré' en termes de nécessité nationale.
En Juin 1941, le Corps d'Armée Canadien des femmes était établi. Les femmes enrôlées prendraient le contrôle
- Conductrices de véhicules mécaniques de transport légers
- Cuisinières dans les hôpitaux et messes
- Vendeuses, dactylos, et sténographes dans des camps et des centres d'entrainements
- Opératrices téléphoniques et messagères
- Aides de cantines
Le 2 Juillet 1942 la permission de s'engager dans ce qui sera appelé les Forces de l'Air Auxiliaires des Femmes Canadiennes a été donnée aux femmes. Pour finir, la Navy Royale Canadienne a crée le Service Naval Royal des Femmes Canadiennes (WRENS : Women’s Royal Canadian Naval Service) . Les WRENS étaient le seul corps qui était officiellement une partie du corps de consécration en tant que division féminine (?). S'en est suivi des problèmes bureaucratiques qui seraient résolus facilement en absorbant le corps civil gouverné par des organisations militaires, dans les divisions féminines comme soldats. D'après les RCAF (la force aérienne des Forces canadiennes) voici les critères nécessaires à l'inscription:
- Doit avoir au moins 18 ans, et doit être plus jeune que 41 ans.
- Doit être de catégorie médicale A4B (équivalent à A1)
- Doit faire 1m50 ou plus, et doit avoir un poids proportionnel à sa taille, sans être ni au dessus ni au dessous de la normale.
- Doit avoir eu un minimum d'éducation au lycée
- Doit passer le bon test d'échanges.
- Doit être de bon caractère sans casier judiciaire de condamnation pour offense passible de poursuites.
Les femmes ne pouvaient pas s'engager si elles étaient marriées et avaient des enfants dépendant d'elles. Des centres d'entrainement étaient nécessaires pour toutes les nouvelles recrues. Elles ne pouvaient pas être envoyées aux centres déjà installés car la séparation des hommes et des femmes n'était pas nécessaire. Corps d'Armée des Femmes Canadiennes installa des centres à Vermillion, AB et à Kitchener, ON. Ottawa, OON et Toronto, ON étaient les lieux où se trouvaient les centres d'entrainement la force aérienne des Forces canadiennes. Les WRENS étaient équipées à Galt, ON. Chaque service devait donner les meilleurs avantages de l'engagement, car tous souhaitaient voir de nouvelles recrues. En réalité, les femmes allaient où leurs pères, frères ou compagnons se trouvaient. Les femmes avaient de nombreux motifs pour rejoindre l'armée, peut-être avaeient-ils un père, un frère ou un compagnon dans les forces, ou peut-être sentaient-elles un devoir patriotique. Une femme à montré son enthousiasme en exclamant fortement qu'elle était impatiente d'avoir 18 ans afin de pouvoir s'engager, car elle rêvait de tuer Hitler. Beaucoup de femmes agées de 16 ou 17 ans mentaient sur leurs ages afin de pouvoir s'engager. Les Etats-Unis ne voulaient pas accepter les femmes de moins de 21 ans. Pour les jeunes civiles, le Canada était la seule option. Le recrutement pour les différentes branches des Forces Canadiennes était mis en place dans des villes telles que Boston et New York. Des modifications étaient faites pour les jeunes filles de nationalité Américaine, car elles avaients un devoir "d'allégeance au drapeau des États-Unis d'Amérique et à la République qu'il représente, une nation unie sous l'autorité de Dieu, indivisible, avec la liberté et la justice pour tous."
Les femmes devaient remplir les mêmes critères que les hommes. Elles devaient subir des examens médicaux, être en forme physique et suivre des entrainements variant en fonction du corps dans lequel la femme voulait adhérer. Les femmes engagées devaient porter un uniforme complet (sans compter les sous-vêtements), qui leur serait donné par autorisation trimestrielle.
Etre une femme enlistée durant la création de ces operations n'était pas facile. Mis à part le fait que tout le monde apprenait au fur et à mesure, les femmes ne recevaient pas l'aide nécessaire de la part des recruts masculines. pour commencer, les femmes étaient payées deux tiers de ce qu'un homme du même niveau recevait. [1] Suivant la progression de la guerre, les chefs militaires commencèrent à voir les impacts substantiels que les femmes pouvaient provoquer. Dans beaucoup de cas, les femmes surpassaient les hommes. Ce phénomène a été pris en compte et les femmes reçurent une augmentation et gagnaient maintenant quatre cinquièmes de la paye des hommes. La réaction des hommes par rapport aux femmes fut addressée dans des films de propagande. Proudly She Marches et Wings on Her Shoulders ont été crées afin de montrer l'acceptance des femmes recruts, et le fait qu'elles arriveraient à garder leurs feminité malgré le fait qu'elles occupaient des postes traditionnellement occupés par des hommes.[2]
D'autres problèmes auquels les femmes devaient faire face portaient sur le sujet racial. Un officier du CWAC devait écrire à ses superieurs afin de savoir si une femme de nationalité "Indienne" serait acceptée ppour le recrutement. Parce que la majorité des habitants du Canada étaient des immigrés, les femmes Allemandes enlistées créaient des agitations chez les recruts. [2] La plus grande difficultées était celle des populations Franco-Canadiennes. Dans un document datant du 25 Novembre 1941, il était declaré que les femmes enlistées devaient "non-officiellement" parler Anglais. Cependant, en voyant le grand nombre de femmes capables de produire un travail efficace que cette règle excluait, une Ecole pour l'Anglais fut établie pour les recruts en 1942. [2] En 1942, Mary Greyeyes-Reid devint la première de la Première Nation à rejoindre les Forces Canadiennes. [3] Elle fut photographiée afin de représenter les populations natives, et en même temps n'était pas la bienvenue dans les casernes à cause de la discrimination. [4]
Une fois enlistée et en entrainement, quelques femmes réalisèrent qu'elles avaient fait une erreur. Plusieurs femmes craquèrent sous la pression et devaient être hospitalisées. D'autres femmes ressentaient le besoin de s'échapper, et s'enfuyaient en courant. La façon la plus rapide et la plus simple de recevoir un ticket de sortie était de tomber enceinte. Les femmes qui s'apercevaient de leur grossesse recevaient une libération rapide. [2]
Les femmes qui réussissaient leurs entrainements devaient trouver un moyen de garder le morale. Les passes-temps preferés des recruts étaient le softball, le badminton, et le hockey.
La religion était un sujet personnel pour les recruts. Un ministre ou un officier supérieur était souvent présent dans les casernes. Les femmes Juives étaient autorisées à rejoindre leurs casernes au coucher du soleil pour le Sabbath et autres événements... Un rabbin était disponible si besoin.
Au début de la guerre, 600.000 femmes Canadiennes travaillent à temps plein dans le secteur privé, à l'apogée de 1943 1.2 million de femmes avaient un travail.[1] Les femmes gagnèrent rapidement une bonne reputation pour leurs dextérité mechanique et leurs précision provenant de leurs petites figures.[1] A la maison, les femmes pouvaient travailler en tant que:
- Assistante cuisinière
- Lougre ou bûcheron
- Constructeur de navires
- Scientifiques
- Créatrice de munitions
Les femmes devaient aussi garder les maisons propres en l'absence de leurs maris. "Une femme au foyer mère de neufs enfants partis soit partis se battre soit partis travailler dans des usines - conduisait le tracteur, labourait les champs, montait le foin, et montait le grain aux silos, en même temps, elle prenait soin de son jardin, élevait les poules, les cochons, et les dindes, et mettait en boîte des centaines de pots de fruits et de légumes."[1]
En plus d'un effort physique, les femmes était supposées réduire leurs dépenses et rationer. La soie et le nylon étaient utilisés pour l'effort de guerre, ce qui provoca une pénurie de bas. Plusieurs femmes dessinaient des lignes le long de l'arrière de leurs jambes afin de créer l'illusion de porter des bas.[1]
When war began to look unavoidable in the late 1930s, Canadian women felt obligated to help the fight. In October 1938, the Women’s Volunteer Service was established in Victoria, BC. Soon, all the provinces and territories followed suit and similar volunteer groups were emerged. “Husbands, brothers, fathers, boyfriends were all joining up, doing something to help win the war. Surely women could help as well!” [26] In addition to the Red Cross, several volunteer corps had designed themselves after auxiliary groups from Britain. These corps had uniforms, marching drills and a few had rifle training. It soon was clear, that a unified governing system would be beneficial to the corps. The volunteers in British Columbia donated two dollars each to pay the expenses so a representative could talk to politicians in Ottawa. Although all of the politicians appeared sympathetic to the cause, it remained ‘premature’ in terms of national necessity[26].
In June 1941, the Canadian Women’s Army Corps was established. The women who enlisted would take over
- Drivers of light mechanical transport vehicles
- Cooks in hospitals and messes
- Clerks, typists, and stenographers at camps and training centres
- Telephone operators and messengers
- Canteen helpers[26]
On July 2, 1942 women were given permission to enlist in what would be known as the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force. Lastly the Royal Canadian Navy created the Women’s Royal Canadian Naval Service or the WRENS.[26] The WRENS were the only corps that were officially a part of their sanctioning body as a women’s division. This led to bureaucratic issues that would be solved most easily by absorbing the civilian corps governed by military organizations, into women’s divisions as soldiers. According to the RCAF the following are the requirements of an enlisted woman:
- Must be at least 18 years of age, and younger than 41 years of age
- Must be of medical category A4B (equivalent of A1)
- Must be equal to or over 5 feet, and fall within the appropriate weight for her height, not being too far above or below the standard
- Must have a minimum education of entrance into high school
- Be able to pass the appropriate trades test
- Be of good character with no record of conviction for an indictable offence[26]
Women would not be considered for enlistment if they were married and had children dependent on them. Training centres were required for all of the new recruits. They could not be sent to the existing centres as it was necessary that they be separated from male recruits. The Canadian Women’s Army Corps set up centres in Vermilion, AB and Kitchener, ON. Ottawa, ON and Toronto, ON were the locations of the training centres for the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force. The WRENS were outfitted in Galt, ON.[26] Each service had to come up with the best possible appeal to the women joining, for they all wanted them. In reality, the women went where their fathers, brothers and boyfriends were.[26] Women had numerous reasons for wanting to join the effort; whether they had a father, husband, or brother in the forces, or simply felt the patriotic duty to help. One woman blatantly exclaimed that she could not wait to turn eighteen to enlist, because she had fantasies of assassinating Hitler. Many women aged 16 or 17 lied about their age in order to enlist. The United States would only allow women to join that were at least twenty-one. For their young female citizens, Canada was the logical option. Recruitment for the different branches of the Canadian Forces was set up in places like Boston and New York. Modifications were made to girls with US citizenship, having their records marked, “Oath of allegiance not taken by virtue of being a citizen of The United States of America.” [26]
Women were obligated to conform to the same enlistment requirements as men. They had to adhere to medical examinations, and fitness requirements as well as training in certain trades depending on the aspect of the armed forces they wanted to be a part of. Enlisted women were issued entire uniforms minus the undergarments, which they would receive a quarterly allowance for[26].
To be an enlisted woman during the creation stages was not easy. Besides the fact that everyone was learning as they went, they did not receive the support they needed from the male recruits. To begin with, women were initially paid two-thirds of what a man at the same level would make.[27] As the war progressed the military leaders began to see the substantial impact the women could make. In many cases the women had outperformed their male counterparts. This was taken into account and the women received a raise to four-fifths of the wages of a man.[27] A female doctor however, would receive equal financial compensation to her male counterpart. The negative reaction of men towards the female recruits was addressed in propaganda films. Proudly She Marches and Wings on Her Shoulder were made to show the acceptance of female recruits, while showing the men that although they were taking jobs traditionally intended for men, they would be able to retain their femininity.[26] .
Other problems faced early on for these women were that of a more racial stature. An officer of the CWAC had to write to her superiors regarding whether or not a girl of “Indian nationality” would be objected for enlistment. Because of Canada’s large population of immigrants, German women also enlisted creating great animosity between recruits.[26] The biggest difficulty was however the French-Canadian population. In a document dated 25 November 1941, it was declared that enlisted women should ‘unofficially’ speak English. However, seeing the large number of capable women that this left out, a School of English was stabled for recruits in mid-1942. .[26] In 1942, Mary Greyeyes-Reid became the first First Nations woman to join the Canadian Forces.[28] She was featured in photographs to represent native people in the forces, yet at the same time was not welcome in the barracks due to discrimination[29].
Once in training, some women felt that they had made a mistake. Several women cracked under the pressure and were hospitalized. Other women felt the need to escape, and simply ran away. The easiest and fastest ticket home however was pregnancy. Women who found out that they were expecting were given a special, quickly executed, discharge[26].
The women who successfully graduated from training had to find ways to entertain themselves to keep morale up. Softball, badminton, tennis, and hockey were among popular pastimes for recruits.[26] .
Religion was of a personal matter to the recruits. A minister of sorts was usually on site for services. For Jewish girls, it was custom that they were able to get back to their barracks by sundown on Sabbath and holidays; a Rabbi would be made available if possible.[26] .
At the beginning of the war 600,000 women in Canada held permanent jobs in the private sector, by the peak in 1943 1.2 million women had jobs.[30] Women quickly gained a good reputation for their mechanical dexterity and fine precision due to their smaller stature.[30] At home a woman could work as:
- Cafeteria workers
- Loggers or lumberjills
- Shipbuilders
- Scientists
- Munitions workers[27]
Women also had to keep their homes together while the men were away. “An Alberta mother of nine boys, all away at either war or factory jobs – drove the tractor, plowed the fields, put up hay, and hauled grain to the elevators, along with tending her garden, raising chickens, pigs, and turkeys, and canned hundreds of jars of fruits and vegetables.” [30]
In addition to physical jobs, women were also asked to cut back and ration. Silk and nylon were used for the war efforts, creating a shortage of stockings. Many women actually painted lines down the back of their legs to create the illusion of wearing the fashionable stockings of the time[30].
Finland / Finlande
[modifier | modifier le code]Much like in the United Kingdom, the Finnish women took part in defence: nursing, air raid signaling, rationing and hospitalization of the wounded. Their organization was called Lotta Svärd, where voluntary women took part in auxiliary work of the armed forces to help those fighting on the front. Lotta Svärd was one of the largest, if not the largest, voluntary group in World War II. They never fired guns (a rule among the Lottas)[31].
Tout comme le Royaume-Uni, les finlandaises ont pris part à la défense : infirmières, rationnement, signalement de raid aériens, et hospitalisation des blessés. Leur organisation était appelées Lotta Svärd, où des femmes volontaires prenaient part aux travaux auxiliaires des forces armées dans le but de venir en aide au front. Lotta Svärd était l'un des groupe, même le plus grand groupe volontaire de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Elles ne tirèrent jamais une balle ( ce qui était une règle du groupe).[1]
Germany / Allemagne
[modifier | modifier le code]A la veille de la Guerre, 14.6 million de femmes Allemandes travaillaient, avec 51% de femmes de 16 à 60 ans (âge légal) dans la main-d’œuvre. Près de six million étaient fermières, étant donné que l'économie agricole était dominée par de petites fermes dont 2.7 million travaillaient dans des usines. La mobilisation de l'economie en faveur de l'effort de guerre fut paradoxalement dirigé par des femmes pour atteindre un plancher de 41% de femmes travaillant en 1944. Cependant, en terme de femmes employé dans les activités de la guerre, les femmes anglaise et allemande avaient un taux de participation où c'était égal à 1944.avec les USA toujours immobile. Le 3ème Reich est face a des difficulté importante du au travail des pays ennemies. Les salaires élevés dans les industries de guerre ont attiré des centaines de milliers d'hommes. les prisonniers de guerre ont eu aussi contribué en étant des ouvriers agricooles, permettant aux femmes de se liberer pour d'autres travaux.
Le IIIè Reich à eu de nombreux rôles pour la femme, incluent le combat. Les membres du SS-Helferinnen étaient considérées comme des SS si elles avaient participé à un entrainement dans un Reichsschule SS alors que toutes les autres femmes pouvaient être appelées par les SS et choisies dans les camps de concentration Nazis. Les femmes servaient aussi dans des unités auxiliaires de la navy (Kriegshelferinnen), des forces de l'air (Luftnachrichtenhelferinnen) et l'armée (Nachrichtenhelferin). Des milliers de femmes auxiliaires (Aufseherin) travaillaient pour les SS dans les camps, dont la majorité se trouvaient à Ravensbrück.
Dans les six millions de Juifs tués durant le Genocide, deux millions d'entre eux étaient des femmes. Les Nazis comettaient aussi des massacre de femmes (et d'hommes) romanichels au camp de concentration d'Auschwitz, assassinaient aussi des femmes (et des hommes) handicapées avec l'operation du T4 et d'autres operations d'euthanasie, et tuaient des femmes (et des hommes) en tant que partisans supposées dans de nombreux villages Soviétique entre 1943-1944. De plus, les femmes victimes du Genocide étaient torturées de différentes façons tel que des viols, du harcèlement sexuel, elles étaient battues, étaient sujets à des experimentations Nazis, etc.
Entre 1944-45 plus de 500,000 femmes étaient portées volontaire en tant qu'auxiliaires uniformes dans l'armée Allemande (Wehrmacht). A peu près le même nombre de femmes ont servi dans la defense aérienne civile, 400,000 étaient des infirmières volontaires, et bien plus remplaçaient les hommes partis au champ de bataille. Dans le LuftWaffe elles servaient dans des combats de roles aidant à opérer le système anti-aérien qui tiraient sur les bombardier alliés. A partir de 1945, les femmes Allemandes occupaient 85% des postes en tant que secrétaires, comptables, interprètes, scientifiques, etc...
L'Allemagne avait un service infirmier large et organisé, contenant quatre organisations, une pour les Catholiques, une pour les Protestants, la DRK laïque (Croix Rouge) et les "Brown Nurses", par le comité nazi des femme. L'infirmière militante a été principalement géré par le DRK, qui est rentré sous un contrôle partiel des nazis. Les services médicaux de première ligne sont apportés par des hommes médecins et des docteurs. Les infirmières de la croix rouge ont beaucoup servi dans les services médicaux militaire, encadrant les hôpitaux qui sont proches de la ligne de front et sujet à des bombardement. Deux douzaine de personne ont reçus la croix de fer pour leur héroïsme face au flamme. En revanche, la bref historiographie Nurses in Nazi Germany par Bronwyn Rebekah McFarland-Icke (1999) se focalise sur le dilemme des infirmières allemandes forcées de regarder les autres tandis que leurs patients incapables ont été assassinés.
On the eve of war 14.6 million German women were working, with 51% of women of working age (16–60 years old) in the workforce. Nearly six million were doing farm work, as Germany's agricultural economy was dominated by small family farms. 2.7 million worked in industry. When the German economy was mobilized for war it paradoxically led to a drop in female work participation, reaching a low of 41% before gradually climbing back to over 50% again. This still compares favorably with the UK and the USA, both playing catchup, with Britain achieving a participation rate of 41% of women of working age in 1944. However, in terms of women employed in war work, British and German female participation rates were nearly equal by 1944, with the United States still lagging. The difficulties the Third Reich faced in increasing the size of the work force was mitigated by reallocating labor to work that supported the war effort. High wages in war industries attracted hundreds of thousands, freeing up men for military duties. Prisoners of war were also employed as farmhands, freeing up women for other work[32].
The Third Reich had many roles for women, including combat. The SS-Helferinnen were regarded as part of the SS if they had undergone training at a Reichsschule SS but all other female workers were regarded as being contracted to the SS and chosen largely from Nazi concentration camps. Women also served in auxiliary units in the navy (Kriegshelferinnen), air force (Luftnachrichtenhelferinnen) and army (Nachrichtenhelferin).[33][34][35][36][37] Hundreds of women auxiliaries (Aufseherin) served for the SS in the camps, the majority of which were at Ravensbrück[38].
Of the estimated six million Jews who were killed during the Holocaust, 2 million of them were women.[39] The Nazis also committed mass murder of Roma women (and men) at the Auschwitz concentration camp, murdered women (and men) with disabilities in the T4 and other euthanasia operations, and murdered women (and men) as supposed partisans in many Soviet villages in 1943-1944.[40] Besides the murders, women in the Holocaust were tortured in other ways such as rape, sexual harassment, getting beaten, being the center of Nazi human experimentations, etc.[40]
In 1944-45 more than 500,000 women were volunteer uniformed auxiliaries in the German armed forces (Wehrmacht). About the same number served in civil aerial defense, 400,000 volunteered as nurses, and many more replaced drafted men in the wartime economy.[34] In the Luftwaffe they served in combat roles helping to operate the anti—aircraft systems that shot down Allied bombers. By 1945, German women were holding 85% of the billets as clericals, accountants, interpreters, laboratory workers, and administrative workers, together with half of the clerical and junior administrative posts in high-level field headquarters[41].
Germany had a very large and well organized nursing service, with four main organizations, one for Catholics, one for Protestants, the secular DRK (Red Cross) and the "Brown Nurses," for committed Nazi women. Military nursing was primarily handled by the DRK, which came under partial Nazi control. Frontline medical services were provided by male medics and doctors. Red Cross nurses served widely within the military medical services, staffing the hospitals that perforce were close to the front lines and at risk of bombing attacks. Two dozen were awarded the Iron Cross for heroism under fire.[33] In contrast, the brief historiography Nurses in Nazi Germany by Bronwyn Rebekah McFarland-Icke (1999) focuses on the dilemmas of German nurses forced to look the other way while their incapacitated patients were murdered[42].
Italy/Italie
[modifier | modifier le code]The Italian Social Republic had similar roles for women. In the 1944 the Women's Auxiliary Service (Servizio Ausiliario Femminile) were regarded as part of the RSI military formations. The commander was the brigadier general Piera Gatteschi Fondelli.
La République sociale italienne a eu des rôles similaires pour les femmes. En 1944 les Women's Auxiliary Service (Servizio Ausiliario Femminile) ont été considérés comme faisant partie des formations militaires RSI. Le commandant était le général brigadier Piera Gatteschi Fondelli.
Poland/Pologne
[modifier | modifier le code]In occupied Poland, as elsewhere, women played a major role in the resistance movement, putting them in the front line. Their most important role was as couriers carrying messages between cells of the resistance movement and distributing news broadsheets and operating clandestine printing presses. During partisan attacks on Nazi forces and installations they served as scouts.
During the Warsaw Rising of 1944, female members of the Home Army were couriers and medics, but many carried weapons and took part in the fighting. Among the more notable women of the Home Army was Wanda Gertz who created and commanded DYSK (Women's sabotage unit). For her bravery in these activities and later in the Warsaw Uprising she was awarded Poland's highest awards - Virtuti Militari and Polonia Restituta. One of the articles of the capitulation was that the German Army recognized them as full members of the armed forces and needed to set up separate Prisoner-of-war camps to hold over 2000 women prisoners-of-war[43].
Dans la Pologne occupée, tout comme partout ailleurs, les femmes jouées un rôle majeur dans le mouvement résistants, en les mettant en première ligne. Leur rôle le plus important était que les courriers portant un message entre les cellules du mouvement résistant et la distribution de nouvelles brochures et d'exploitation des presses d'impression clandestines. Au cours des attaques partisanes contre les forces et installations nazis elles ont servi d'éclaireurs.
Durant la Warsaw Rising en 1944, les membres féminins de la Maison de l'Armée étaient courrières et medecins, mais de nombreuses portées armée ont pris part au combat.
Romania/ Roumanie
[modifier | modifier le code]Romanian women played a significant role in the Royal Romanian Air Force. Inspired by the Finnish Lotta Svärd, the Ministry of the Air set up a specialized air ambulance unit called the 108th Medevac Light Transport Squadron, better known as the White Squadron (Escadrila Albă), which included mostly female pilots. The unit was active between 1940-1943, participated in the campaigns at Odessa and Stalingrad and rose to fame during the war as the only unit of its kind in the world.[44] Romanian women also served as pilots in other transport and liaison units during the war. Captain Irina Burnaia, for example, commanded the Bessarabian Squadron between 1942-1944.
After the war and the Communist seizure of power in Romania, the White Squadron's service was largely ignored and its former members faded into obscurity.[45] However, since the Romanian Revolution there has been a new wave of recognition of the female aviators, as exemplified by Mariana Drăgescu's promotion to the rank of Commander (Comandor) in 2013.
Soviet Union
[modifier | modifier le code]The Soviet Union mobilized women at an early stage of the war, integrating them into the main army units, and not using the "auxiliary" status. Some 800,000 women served, most of whom were in front-line duty units.[46] About 300,000 served in anti-aircraft units and performed all functions in the batteries—including firing the guns.[47][48] A small number were combat flyers in the Air Force[49].
United Kingdom
[modifier | modifier le code]Workplace
[modifier | modifier le code]When Britain went to war, as before in World War I, previously forbidden job opportunities opened up for women. Women were called into the factories to create the weapons that were used on the battlefield.[50] Women took on responsibility of managing the home and became the heroines of the home front. According to Carruthers, this industrial employment of women significantly raised women’s self-esteem as it allowed them to carry out their full potential and do their part in the war. During the war, women’s normative roles of “house wife” transformed into a patriotic duty. As Carruther’s put it, the housewife has become a heroine in the defeat of Hitler (235).[50] The roles of women shifting from domestic to masculine and dangerous jobs in the workforce made for important changes in workplace structure and society. During the Second World War, society had specific ideals for the jobs in which both women and men participated in. When women began to enter into the masculine workforce and munitions industries previously dominated by men, women’s segregation began to diminish. Increasing numbers of women were forced into industry jobs between 1940-1943.[51] As surveyed by the Ministry of Labour, the percentage of women in industrial jobs went from 19.75 per cent to 27 per cent from 1938-1945.[51] It was very difficult for women to spend their days in factories, and then come home to their domestic chores and care-giving, and as a result, many women were unable to hold their jobs in the workplace.[51] Britain underwent a labour shortage where an estimated 1.5 million people were needed for the armed forces, and an additional 775,000 for munitions and other services in 1942.[51] It was during this ‘labour famine’ that propaganda aimed to induce people to join the labour force and do their bit in the war. Women were the target audience in the various forms of propaganda because they were paid substantially less than men.[51] It was of no concern whether women were filling the same jobs that men previously held. Even if women were replacing jobs with the same skill level as a man, they were still paid significantly less due to their gender. In the engineering industry alone, the number of skilled and semi-skilled female workers increased from 75 per cent to 85 per cent from 1940-1942.[51] According to Gazeley, even though women were paid less than men, it is clear that women engaging in war work and taking on jobs preserved by men reduced industrial segregation[51].
In Britain, women were essential to the war effort, in both civilian and military roles. The contribution by civilian men and women to the British war effort was acknowledged with the use of the words "Home Front" to describe the battles that were being fought on a domestic level with rationing, recycling, and war work, such as in munitions factories and farms and Men were thus released into the military. Women were also recruited to work on the canals, transporting coal and munitions by barge across the UK via the inland waterways. These became known as the 'Idle Women', initially an insult derived from the initials IW, standing for Inland Waterways, which they wore on their badges, but the term was soon adopted by the women themselves.[52] Many women served with the Women's Auxiliary Fire Service, the Women's Auxiliary Police Corps and in the Air Raid Precautions (later Civil Defence) services. Others did voluntary welfare work with Women's Voluntary Service for Civil Defence and the salvation Army.
Women were "drafted" in the sense that they were conscripted into war work by the Ministry of Labour, including non-combat jobs in the military, such as the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS or "Wrens"), the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF or "Waffs") and the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS). Auxiliary services such as the Air Transport Auxiliary also recruited women.[53] In the early stages of the war such services relied exclusively on volunteers, however by 1941 conscription was extended to women for the first time in British history and around 600,000 women were recruited into these three organizations.[54] In these organizations women performed a wide range of jobs in support of the Army, Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy both overseas and at home. These jobs ranged from traditionally feminine roles like cook, clerk and telephonist to more traditionally masculine duties like mechanic, armourer, searchlight[55] and anti- aircraft instrument operator.[54] British women were not drafted into combat units, but could volunteer for combat duty in anti-aircraft units, which shot down German planes and V-1 missiles.[56][57] Civilian women joined the Special Operations Executive (SOE), which used them in high-danger roles as secret agents and underground radio operators in Nazi occupied Europe[58].
Propaganda
[modifier | modifier le code]British Women’s Propaganda was issued during the war in attempts to communicate to the house-wife that while keeping the domestic role, she must also take on a political role of patriotic duty.[59] Propaganda was meant to eliminate all conflicts of personal and political roles and create a heroine out of the women. The implication with propaganda is that it asked women to redefine their personal and domestic ideals of womanhood and motivate them go against the roles that have been instilled in them.[59] The government struggled to encourage women to respond to posters and other forms of propaganda. One attempt to recruit women into the labour force was in one short film, My Father’s Daughter. In this propaganda film a wealthy factory owner’s daughter begs to do her part in the war, but her father carries the stereotypical belief that women are meant to be caretakers and are incapable of such heavy work. When one foreman presents one of the most valuable and efficient workers in the factory as the daughter, the father’s prejudices are eliminated. The encouraging message of this short film is, “There’s Not Much Women Can’t Do.” [59]
Common roles
[modifier | modifier le code]The most common role of women in active service was that of a searchlight operator.[60] In fact, all of the members of the 93rd Searchlights Regiment were females (Harris). Despite being limited in their roles, there was a great amount of respect between the men and women in the mixed batteries.[60] In fact, one report states, “Many men were amazed that women could make adequate gunners despite their excitable temperament, lack of technical instincts, their lack of interest in aeroplanes and their physical weaknesses”.[60] While women still faced discrimination from some of the highly stereotypical older soldiers and officers who did not like women “playing with their guns”, women were still given rifle practice and taught to use anti-aircraft guns while serving in their batteries. They were told that this was in case the Germans invaded…however if that were to ever happen, they would be evacuated immediately.[60]).
Three quarters of women who entered the wartime forces were volunteers, compared to men who made up less than a third.[54] Single or married women were eligible to volunteer in WAAF, ATS or WRNS and were required to serve throughout Britain as well as overseas if needed, however the age limits set by the services varied from each other. Generally women between 17 and 43 could volunteer and those under 18 required parental consent.[54] After applying, applicants had to fulfill other requirements, including an interview and medical examination; if they were deemed fit to serve then they were enrolled for the duration of the war. WRNS was the only service that offered an immobile branch which allowed women to live in their homes and work in the local naval establishment.[54] WRNS was the smallest of the three organizations and as a result was very selective with their candidates. Of the three organizations, WAAF was the most preferred choice; the second being WRNS. ATS was the largest of the three organizations and was least favoured among women because it accepted those who were unable to get into the other forces. ATS had also developed a reputation of promiscuity and poor living conditions, many women also saw the khaki uniform unappealing and as a result caused women to favour WRNS and WAAF over ATS.[54][61]
Limitations
[modifier | modifier le code]Whilst women were limited in some of their roles, they were expected to perform to the same standard as a male soldier performing the same role, and although they could not participate in frontline combat, still manned anti-aircraft guns and defences which actively engaged hostile aircraft above Britain. Women went through the same military training, lived in the same conditions and did almost the same jobs as men, with the exception of not being able to participate in front-line combat. This small but important distinction meant that women did not tend to be nominated for medals of valour or bravery, because they were only awarded for “active operations against enemy in the field”, which women could not take part in[60].
Women were also distinct because of the titles by which they were addressed in the army, although these tended to be no different from their male counterparts. They wore the same rank insignia as their male counterparts. Many members of the ATS were respected by the units they were attached to despite their different insignia.[60] The only major difference between an ATS member and a male member of the Regular Army was discipline: a woman was not allowed to be court marshalled unless she herself chose to be. The women in the service were also under the authority of the women officers of the ATS, instead of the male officers they served directly under. This meant any disciplinary action was entirely in the hands of the ATS, removing male influence from the process[60].
Volunteerism
[modifier | modifier le code]Despite their obvious distinctions from men, women were eager to volunteer. Many of the servicewomen came from restricted backgrounds; therefore they found the army liberating.[60] Other reasons women volunteered included escaping unhappy homes or marriages, or to have a more stimulating job. The overwhelming reason for joining the army, though, was patriotism. As in World War I, Great Britain was in a patriotic fervour throughout World War II to protect itself from foreign invasion.[62] Women, for the first time, were given the opportunity to help in their native land’s defense, which explains the high number of female volunteers at the beginning of the war. Even Princess Elizabeth was a driver for the Second Subaltern Windsor Unit, having joined to do her part in the protection of the country.[62] Despite the overwhelming response to the call for female volunteers, some women refused to join the forces; many were unwilling to give up the civilian job they had, and others had male counterparts that were unwilling to let them go (Crang 384). Others felt that war was still a man’s job, and not something women should be involved in.[62] Similar to the men’s forces, women’s forces were mostly volunteer throughout the war.[62] When women’s conscription did come into effect, however, it was highly limited. For example, married women were exempt from any obligation to serve unless they chose to do so, and those who were called could opt to serve in civil defense (the home front)[62].
During the war, approximately 487,000 women volunteered for women’s services; 80,000 for WRNS, 185,000 for WAAF and 222,000 for ATS.[54] By 1941 the demands of the wartime industry called for women’s services to be expanded so that more men could be relieved of their previous positions and take on more active roles on the battle field.[54] Of all the women’s services, ATS needed the greatest number of new applicants; however due to ATS’ lack of popularity, they were unable to gain the estimated 100,000 new volunteers needed.[54] To try and change women’s opinions on ATS, living conditions were improved and a new more flattering uniform was made. In 1941 the Registration for Employment Order was introduced in hopes of getting more women enrolled.[63] This act could not force women to join the forces, but instead required women ages 20–30 to try to find employment through labour exchanges and provide information on their current employment and family situations.[63] Those who were deemed eligible were persuaded into the war industry because the Ministry of Labour did not have the power to force.[54] Propaganda was also used to persuade women into the women's services. poster By the end of 1941, ATS had only gained 58,000 new workers, falling short of expectations.Ernest Bevin then called for conscription and by late 1941 with the National Service Act it became compulsory for women ages 20–30 to join military service.[54] Married women were exempt from conscription, but those who were eligible had the option to work in war industry or civil defense if they did not want to join one of the women services.[64] Women were able to request which force they wished to join but most women were put into ATS because of its need for new applicants.[54] The National Service Act was repealed in 1949 but by 1944 women were no longer being called up for service because relying on volunteers was thought to be enough to complete the required tasks during the final stages of war[54].
Women also played an important role in British industrial production during the war, in areas such as metals, chemicals, munitions, shipbuilding and engineering. At the beginning of the war in 1939 17.8% of women made up employment in these industries and by 1943 they made up 38.2%.[65] With the start of the war there was an urgent need to expand the country’s labour force and women were seen as a source of factory labour. Before the war women in industrial production were exclusively on assembly, which was seen as cheap and undemanding work but during the war women were needed in other areas in the production process that were previously done by men such as Lathe operators.[66] The Ministry of Labour created training centres that gave an introduction to the engineering process, and by 1941 women were allowed entrance as the importance of the engineering industry grew and became a large source of female employment.[66] Areas such as aircraft manufacture, light and heavy general engineering and motor vehicle manufacturing all saw an increase in female employment during the war.[65] Aircraft production saw the largest rise in female employment as it rose from 7% in 1935 to 40% in 1944.[66] At the start of the war men who were already in engineering were prevented from going to war because engineering was seen as an important industry to war production but in 1940 there became a need for more female workers to supply the necessary labour for factory expansion.[64] By 1941 with the shortage of skilled labour the Essential Workers Order was introduced which required all skilled workers to register and prevented workers from quitting from jobs that were deemed essential to the war effort without agreement from a National Service Officer.[64] The Registration for the Employment Order in 1941 and the Women of Employment Order in 1942 also attempted to get more women into the workforce. The Women of Employment Order required women ages 18–45 to register for labour exchanges and by 1943 the maximum age was raised to 50, which brought an additional 20,000 women into the workforce. Aircraft production was given the top labour priority and many women were diverted into it with some even being transferred from agricultural production[63].
Interpretation of aerial photographs
[modifier | modifier le code]One of the most important roles within the forces that women occupied during the war was that of interpreting aerial photographs taken by British spy planes over Allied Europe.[67] There was equality in this work that was not found anywhere else during the war: women were considered equal to men in this field.[68] Women played an important role in the planning of D-Day in this capacity-they analyzed the photos of the Normandy Coast and decided which beaches the troops landed on and which sections. Women as photo analysts also participated in the biggest intelligence coup of the war-the discovery of the German V1 flying bomb. The participation of women allowed these bombs to be destroyed[68].
Although many women were doing jobs that men had previously done during the war, there were still pay distinctions between the two sexes. Equal pay was rarely achieved as employers wanted to avoid labour costs. Skilled work was often broken down into smaller tasks and labelled skilled or semi-skilled and then paid according to women's pay rates.[66] Women who were judged to be doing ‘men’s work’ were paid more than women who were thought to be doing ‘women’s work’ and the employers' definition of this varied regionally.[63] Women were receiving closer wages to their male counterparts; however despite the government's expressed intentions, women continued to be paid less than men for equivalent work and were segregated in terms of job description, status, and the hours they put in.[63] In 1940 Ernest Bevin persuaded engineering employers and unions to give women equal pay to men since they were taking on the same tasks that men previously had; this became the Extended Employment of Women Agreement.[65] Generally, pay increases depended on the industry; industries that were dominated by women before the war, like textiles and clothing, saw no changes in pay. However the gap between male and female earnings narrowed by 20-24% in metals, engineering and vehicle building and by 10-13% in chemicals, which were all deemed important to the war effort.[64] Overtime hours also differed, with women getting 2–3 hours and men 9-10 a week. Women’s hours were still regulated because of their responsibilities to take care of their family and household[65].
Postwar
[modifier | modifier le code]Postwar, women were returned to many of the mundane jobs they occupied before the war started. Where once the army represented an escape from domestic life and liberty, it now returned to the male-dominated field it was before the war.[69] Women who served in the batteries as gunners and searchlight-operators were suddenly being demeaned to secretaries and clerks, taking away any opportunity these women may have had to capitalize on their training.[69] 'Demob was a big disappointment to a lot of us. It was an awful and wonderful war. I wouldn't have missed it for anything; some of the friends we made were forever.” One female recounted after being dismissed from service to return to her normal job. Married women were released from service sooner at the end of the war, so they could return home before their husbands to ensure the home was ready when he returned from the front.[69] Despite being largely unrecognized for their wartime efforts in the forces, the participation of women in World War II allowed for the founding of permanent women’s forces. Britain instituted these permanent forces in 1949, and the Women’s Voluntary Services are still a standing reserve force today[70].
Après la guerre, les femmes ont été admises à nouveau à bon nombre d'emplois banales qu'elles occupaient avant le début de la guerre. Là où l'armée représentait une évasion de la vie domestique et de la liberté, l'armée est retourné a un champs dominé par les hommes, comme avant la guerre. [1] Les femmes qui ont servi dans les batteries comme canonniers et recherche d'opérateurs ont été soudainement rabaissée aux métiers de secrétaires et de commis, emportant toute possibilité que ces femmes peuvent tirer profit de leur formation 'Demob était une grosse déception pour beaucoup d'entre nous. Ce fut une guerre terrible et merveilleux. Je ne l'aurais pas manqué ça pour quoi que ce soit; quelques-uns des amis nous avons fait était pour toujours. "Une femme a raconté après avoir été démis de leurs fonctions pour retourner à son travail normal. Les femmes mariées ont été libérés du service plus tôt à la fin de la guerre, afin qu'ils puissent rentrer chez eux avant que leurs maris pour assurer la maison était prêt quand il est revenu de l'avant.En dépit d'être largement méconnu pour leurs efforts en temps de guerre dans les forces, la participation des femmes dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale a permis la création des forces de femmes permanentes. La Grande-Bretagne a institué ces forcespermanentes en 1949, et les services volontaires de la femme sont encore debout force de réserve aujourd'hui.
United States
[modifier | modifier le code]See American women in World War II
Voir American women dans World War II
Yugoslavia
[modifier | modifier le code]Tito's Yugoslav National Liberation Movement claimed 6,000,000 civilian supporters; its two million women formed the Antifascist Front of Women (AFŽ), in which the revolutionary coexisted with the traditional. The AFŽ managed schools, hospitals and even local governments. About 100,000 women served with 600,000 men in Tito's Yugoslav National Liberation Army. It stressed its dedication to women's rights and gender equality and used the imagery of traditional folklore heroines to attract and legitimize the partizanka.[71] After the war women were relegated to traditional gender roles, but Yugoslavia is unique as its historians paid extensive attention to women's roles in the resistance, until the country broke up in the 1990s. Then the memory of the women soldiers faded away[72],[73].
Le mouvement dans l'armée national de libération Yougolav revendique 6 000 000 supporters civil, ils sont deux million de femme formant le anti-fasciste front des femmes dans lequel les révolutionnaires cohabitent avec la traduction. Le AFZ construit des écoles, hôpitaux et événement locaux gouvernementaux. 100.000 femmes ont sérvit avec 600.000 hommes dans l'armée national de libération Yougoslav.
References
[modifier | modifier le code]- (en) {{Article}} : paramètre «
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Le modèle {{lien brisé}} est compatible avec {{lien web}} : il suffit de remplacer l’un par l’autre. - D'Ann Campbell, online edition "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union", Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323
- http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/canadian-womens-army-corps/
- « The Canadian Women’s Army Corps, 1941-1946 | Canadian War Museum », Warmuseum.ca (consulté le )
- « Women's History Chronology », Uscg.mil (consulté le )
- « Marine Corps Reserve Association - This Month in History », Usmcra.org (consulté le )
- [2]
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Le modèle {{lien brisé}} est compatible avec {{lien web}} : il suffit de remplacer l’un par l’autre. - [3]
Le modèle {{dead link}} doit être remplacé par {{lien brisé}} selon la syntaxe suivante :
{{ lien brisé | url = http://example.com | titre = Un exemple }}
(syntaxe de base)
Le paramètreurl
est obligatoire,titre
facultatif.
Le modèle {{lien brisé}} est compatible avec {{lien web}} : il suffit de remplacer l’un par l’autre. - « Asian-Pacific-American Servicewomen in Defense of a Nation », Women In Military Service For America Memorial Foundation (consulté le )
- The Asian Women's Fund, « Who were the Comfort Women?-The Establishment of Comfort Stations » [archive du ], Digital Museum The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund, The Asian Women's Fund (consulté le )
- The Asian Women's Fund, « Hall I: Japanese Military and Comfort Women » [archive du ], Digital Museum The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund, The Asian Women's Fund (consulté le ) : « The so-called 'wartime comfort women' were those who were taken to former Japanese military installations, such as comfort stations, for a certain period during wartime in the past and forced to provide sexual services to officers and soldiers. »
- Carmen Argibay, « Sexual Slavery and the Comfort Women of World War II », Berkeley Journal of International Law, (lire en ligne)
- (en) Robert McKellar, Target of Opportunity & Other War Stories, AuthorHouse, (ISBN 1-4634-1656-3, lire en ligne), p. 189 :
« The term 'comfort women', which is a translation of the Japanese euphemism jugun ianfu ('military comfort women'), categorically refers to women of various ethnic and national backgrounds and social circumstances who became sexual laborers for Japanese troops before and during WWII. »
- (en) C. Sarah Soh, The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan, University of Chicago Press, (ISBN 0-226-76777-9, lire en ligne), p. 69 :
« It referred to adult female (fu/bu) who provided sexual services to "comfort and entertain" (ian/wian) the warrior... »
- (ja) Nobukatsu Fujioka, {{Ouvrage}} : paramètre
titre
manquant, Tokuma Shoten, (lire en ligne), p. 39 :« 慰安婦は戦地で外征軍を相手とする娼婦を指す用語(婉曲用語)だった。 (Ianfu was a euphemism for the prostitutes who served for the Japanese expeditionary forces outside Japan) »
- Asian Women'sFund, p. 10
- (en) Hua-Lun Huang, The Missing Girls and Women of China, Hong Kong and Taiwan: A Sociological Study of Infanticide, Forced Prostitution, Political Imprisonment, "Ghost Brides," Runaways and Thrownaways, McFarland, (ISBN 0-7864-8834-4, lire en ligne), p. 206 :
« Although Ianfu came from all regions or countries annexed or occupied by Japan before 1945, most of them were Chinese or Korean. Researchers at the Research Center of the Chinese Comfort Women Issue of Shanghai Normal University estimate that the total number of comfort women at 360,000 to 410,000. »
- Rose 2005, p. 88
- « Women and World War II – Comfort Women », Womenshistory.about.com (consulté le )
- (en) Stephanie Coop, « Japan's Wartime Sex Slave Exhibition Exposes Darkness in East Timor », Japan Times, (lire en ligne)
- (en) REIJI YOSHIDA, « Evidence documenting sex-slave coercion revealed », The Japan Times, (lire en ligne)
- Reuters 2007-03-05.
- Yoshimi 2000, p. 100–101, 105–106, 110–111;
Fackler 2007-03-06;
BBC 2007-03-02;
BBC 2007-03-08. - Gossage, Carolyn. ‘’Greatcoats and Glamour Boots’’. (Toronto:Dundurn Press Limited, 1991)
- « 1942 Timeline », WW2DB (consulté le )
- « Aboriginal Programs, A Proud History », Canadian Forces (consulté le )
- Adams, Sharon, « Historical record corrected after nearly 70 years », Legion Magazine, (consulté le )
- Veterans Affairs Canada, "Women at War," Government of Canada, 2013-08-02
- Charles Leonard Lundin, Finland in the Second World War (Indiana UP, 1957)
- Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction (2006)
- Gordon Williamson, World War II German Women's Auxiliary Services (2003).
- Karen Hagemann, "Mobilizing Women for War: The History, Historiography, and Memory of German Women's War Service in the Two World Wars," Journal of Military History (2011) 75#4 pp 1055-1094
- « Das SS-Helferinnenkorps: Ausbildung, Einsatz und Entnazifizierung der weiblichen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS 1942-1949 », Reviews in History, (consulté le )
- (en) Robin Lumsden, Himmler's SS: Loyal to the Death's Head, Google Books (lire en ligne)
- (en) Gerhard Rempel, Hitler's Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS, Google Books (lire en ligne)
- Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women For War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945 (1979)
- (en) Sonja Hedgepeth, Sexual Violence against Jewish Women during the Holocaust, Lebanon, University Press of New England, , p. 16
- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, « Women During the Holocaust » (consulté le )
- D'Ann Campbell, « Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union », Journal of Military History, vol. 57, , p. 301–323 (DOI 10.2307/2944060, lire en ligne)
- Bronwyn Rebekah McFarland-Icke, Nurses in Nazi Germany (1999)
- Marek Ney-Krwawicz, « Women Soldiers of the Polish Home Army », Polishresistance-ak.org (consulté le )
- « Comunicat nr. 183 », Romanian Ministry of National Defense, (consulté le )
- « Femeile -aviatoare românce – Escadrila Albă », (consulté le )
- Bernard A. Cook (2006). "Women and war: a historical encyclopedia from antiquity to the present". ABC-CLIO. p.546. (ISBN 1-85109-770-8)
- Campbell 1993
- K. Jean Cottam, "Soviet Women in Combat in World War II: The Ground Forces and the Navy," International Journal of Women's Studies, 3, no. 4 (1980): 345-57;
- K. Jean Cottam, Soviet Airwomen in Combat in World War II (Manhattan, KS: Military Affairs/Aerospace Historian Publishing, 1983)
- Carruthers, Susan L. "'Manning the Factories': Propaganda and Policy on the Employment of Women, 1939-1947." History 75.244 (1990): 232-56. Web.
- Gazeley, Ian. "Women’s pay in British Industry during the second world War." Economic History Review. (2008): 651-671. Web.
- (en) « Reunion and plaque for the 'Idle Women', the Land Girls of the canals », The Telegraph, London, (lire en ligne)
- Shelford Bidwell, The Women's Royal Army Corps (London, 1977)
- Jeremy Crang, « Come into the Army, Maud': Women, Military Conscription, and the Markham Inquiry », Defence Studies, vol. 8, , p. 381–395. EBSCOhost (DOI 10.1080/14702430802252537)
- Keith Brigstock, « Royal Artillery Searchlights », Royal Artillery Historical Society, (consulté le )
- See Campbell 1993
- Frederick Arthur Pile, Ack-Ack (London, 1949),
- Nigel West, Secret War: Story of S.O.E. (1993)
- Gingrich, Nadine. ""Every Man Who Dies, Dies for You and Me. See You Be Worthy": The Image of the Hero as Rhetorical Motivation in Unofficial War Propaganda, 1914-1918" War, Literature & the Arts: An International Journal of the Humanities. November 1, (2005): 108-117. Web.
- De Groot, Gerard J. "`I Love the Scent of Cordite in Your Hair': Gender Dynamics in Mixed Anti-Craft Batteries". History 82.265 (1997): 73-92. Web.
- dress
- Crang, Jeremy A. "'Come into the Army, Maud': Women, Military Conscription, and the Markham Inquiry." Defence Studies 8.3 (2008): 381-95. Web.
- Stephen Little, « Shadow Factories, Shallow Skills? an Analysis of Work Organisation in the Aircraft Industry in the Second World War », Labor History, vol. 52, , p. 193–216 EBSCOhost (DOI 10.1080/0023656x.2011.571476)
- Ian Gazeley, « Women's Pay in British Industry during the Second World War », Economic History Review, vol. 61, , p. 651–671 EBSCOhost (DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00412.x)
- Robert Hart, « Women Doing Men’s Work and Women Doing Women’s Work: Female Work and Pay in British Wartime Engineering », Explorations in Economic History, vol. 44, , p. 114–130 EBSCOhost (DOI 10.1016/j.eeh.2005.10.005)
- Sue Bruley, « A New Perspective on Women Workers in the Second World War: The Industrial Diary of Kathleen Church-Bliss and Elsie Whiteman », Labour History Review, vol. 68, , p. 217–234 EBSCOhost
- Downing, Taylor. "Spying from the Sky." History Today 61.11 (2011): 10-16. Web.
- Downing, Taylor. "Spying from the Sky." History Today 61.11 (2011): 10-16. Web
- De Groot, Gerard J. "`I Love the Scent of Cordite in Your Hair': Gender Dynamics in Mixed Anti-Craft Batteries". History 82.265 (1997): 73-92. Web
- Harris, Carol. "Women Under Fire in World War Two". February 17, 2011.Web. February 17, 2013 .
- Barbara Jancar, "Women in the Yugoslav National Liberation Movement: An Overview," Studies in Comparative Communism (1981) 14#2 pp 143-164.
- Vesna Drapac, "Resistance and the Politics of Daily Life in Hitler's Europe: The Case of Yugoslavia in a Comparative Perspective," Aspasia 2009 3: 55-78
- Barbara Jancar-Webster, Women and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941-1945 (1990)
External links
[modifier | modifier le code]Further reading
[modifier | modifier le code]- Batinić, Jelena. Women and Yugoslav Partisans: A History of World War II Resistance. (2015) (ISBN 978-1107091078)
- Binney, Marcus. The Women Who Lived for Danger: The Agents of the Special Operations Executive. (2003) ISBN
- Cottam, K. Jean. "Soviet Women in Combat in World War II: The Ground Forces and the Navy," International Journal of Women's Studies, 3, no. 4 (1980): 345-57
- Gossage, Carolyn and Roberta Bondar. Greatcoats and Glamour Boots: Canadian Women at War, 1939-1945. (2001) (ISBN 978-1550023688)
- Lower, Wendy. Hitler's Furies: German Women in the Nazi Killing Fields. (2014) (ISBN 978-0544334496)
- Elizabeth McIntosh. Sisterhood of Spies: The Women of the OSS. (2009) (ISBN 978-1591145141)
- Monahan, Evelyn and Rosemary Neidel-Greenlee. And If I Perish: Frontline U.S. Army Nurses in World War II. (2004) (ISBN 978-1400031290)
- Noggle, Anne and Christine A. White. A Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. (2001) (ISBN 978-1585441778)
- Ofer, Dalia and Lenore J. Weitzman. Women in the Holocaust. (1998) (ISBN 978-0300073546)
- Soderbergh, Peter. Women Marines: The World War II Era. (1992) (ISBN 978-0275941314)
- Yoshimi, Yoshiaki, translation by Suzanne O'Brien. Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II. (2002) (ISBN 0-231-12033-8)