Paleoindijanci

Paleoindijanci, Paleo-indijanci ili Paleoamerikanci bili su prvi ljudi koji su kročili, i naknadno nastanili, Amerike tokom finalnih ledničkih epizoda kasnog pleistocenskog perioda. Prefiks „paleo” dolazi od grčkog prideva palaios (παλαιός), sa značenjem „staro” ili „drevno”. Izraz „Paleoindijanci” odnosi se posebno na litijski period u zapadnoj hemisferi i razlikuje se od termina „paleolitički”.^[1]

Tradicionalne teorije sugerišu da su lovci na velike životinje prešli Beringski tesnac iz severne Azije u Ameriku preko kopneno-ledenog mosta (Beringija). Ovaj most je postojao od 45.000 do 12.000 pne (pre 47.000–14.000 godina).^[2] Male izolovane grupe lovaca-sakupljača migrirale su zajedno sa stadima velikih biljojeda daleko na Aljasku. Od oko 16.500 - 13.500 pne (pre oko 18.500 - 15.500 godina), koridori bez leda su se razvili duž obale Pacifika i dolina Severne Amerike.^[3] To je dozvolilo životinjama, koje su sledili ljudi, da migriraju južno u unutrašnjost kontinenta. Ljudi su išli peške ili su koristili primitivne čamce duž obale. Tačni datumi i rute naseljavanja Novog sveta i dalje su predmet tekuće rasprave.^[4]

Kameni alati, posebno vrhovi projektila i strugači, primarni su dokaz najranije ljudske aktivnosti u Americi. Arheolozi i antropolozi koriste preživele obrađene litijske alate za klasifikaciju kulturnih razdoblja.^[5] Naučni dokazi vezuju autohtone Amerikance sa stanovništvom istočnog Sibira. Autohtoni narodi Amerike su povezani sa sibirskom populacijom jezičkim faktorima, raspodelom krvnih grupa i genetskom kompozicijom, na šta ukazuju molekularni podaci, kao što je DNK.^[6] Postoje dokazi za najmanje dve odvojene migracije.^[7] Od 8.000 do 7.000 godina pne (pre 10.000–9.000 godina) klima se stabilizovala. Tto je dovelo do porasta broja stanovnika i napretka litičke tehnologije, što je rezultiralo sedentarnim načinom života.

Migracija u Amerike

Mapa ranih ljudskih migracija bazirana na Afričkoj teoriji porekla čoveka; cifre su u hiljadama godina pre sadašnjice.^[8]

Specifičnosti paleoindijske migracije do i kroz Amerike, uključujući tačne datume i rute kojima su putovali, predmet su stalnog istraživanja i diskusije.^[9] Tradicionalna teorija je da su se ti rani migranti preselili u Beringiju između istočnog Sibira i današnje Aljaske pre 17.000 godina,^[10] kada su nivoi mora bili znatno niži zbog kvartarske glacijacije.^[11] Za ove ljude se veruje da su pratili stada sada već izumrle pleistocenske megafaune duž bezlednih koridora koji su se protezali između ledenih ploča Lavrentide i Kordiljera.^[12] Druga predložena ruta je da su bilo peške ili pomoću primitivnih čamaca, oni migrirali niz pacifičku obalu do Južne Amerike.^[13] Dokazi o ovome bi od tada bili pokriveni porastom nivoa mora za više stotina metara nakon poslednjeg ledenog doba.^[14]

Arheolozi tvrde da su Paleoindijanci migrirali iz Beringije (zapadna Aljaska), u rasponu od pre oko 40.000 - 16.500 godina.^[15]^[16]^[17] Ovaj vremenski raspon je predmet znatne debate. Neke od malobrojnih tački saglasnosti koje su ostvarene do saga su da oni potiču iz Centralne Azije, sa široko rasprostranjenim habitacijom Amerike krajem poslednjeg glacijalnog perioda, ili specifičnije onim što je poznato kao kasni ledeni maksimum, oko 16.000–13.000 godina pre današnjice.^[10]^[18] Međutim, postoje alternativne teorije o poreklu paleoindijaca, uključujući migraciju iz Evrope.^[19]

Reference

^ Paleolithic specifically refers to the period between око 2.5 million years ago and the end of the Pleistocene in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is not used in New World archaeology.
^ Sonneborn, Liz (januar 2007). Chronology of American Indian History. Infobase Publishing. стр. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.
^ „First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News”. Архивирано из оригинала 10. 10. 2012. г. Приступљено 18. 11. 2009. „Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken” page 2 Архивирано 2012-03-13 на сајту Wayback Machine
^ H. Trawick Ward; R. P. Stephen Davis (1999). Time before history: the archaeology of North Carolina. UNC Press Books. стр. 2. ISBN 978-0-8078-4780-0. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.
^ „Method and Theory in American Archaeology”. Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Архивирано из оригинала 28. 06. 2012. г. Приступљено 20. 11. 2009.
^ Patricia J. Ash; David J. Robinson (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. стр. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7.
^ Pitblado, B. L. (12. 3. 2011). „A Tale of Two Migrations: Reconciling Recent Biological and Archaeological Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas”. Journal of Archaeological Research. 19 (4): 327—375. doi:10.1007/s10814-011-9049-y.
^ Burenhult, Göran (2000). Die ersten Menschen. Weltbild Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8289-0741-6.
^ Phillip M. White (2006). American Indian chronology: chronologies of the American mosaic. Greenwood Publishing Group. стр. 1. ISBN 978-0-313-33820-5. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.
^ ^а ^б Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey (Digitised online by Google books). Random House. стр. 138—140. ISBN 978-0-8129-7146-0. Приступљено 21. 11. 2009.
^ Fitzhugh, Drs. William; Goddard, Ives; Ousley, Steve; Owsley, Doug; Stanford, Dennis. „Paleoamerican”. Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office. Архивирано из оригинала 5. 1. 2009. г. Приступљено 15. 1. 2009.
^ „The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health”. Scientific American. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.
^ Fladmark, K. R. (januar 1979). „Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America”. American Antiquity. 44 (1): 55—69. JSTOR 279189. doi:10.2307/279189.
^ „68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"”. Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.
^ „Introduction”. Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 2009. Архивирано из оригинала 24. 4. 2011. г. Приступљено 9. 1. 2010. „Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago as at U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago”
^ „Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats”. Vuntut National Park of Canada. 2008. Архивирано из оригинала 22. 10. 2008. г. Приступљено 10. 1. 2010. „However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago.”
^ „Journey of mankind”. Brad Shaw Foundation. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.
^ Bonatto, SL; Salzano, FM (1997). „A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data”. PNAS. 94 (5): 1866—71. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.1866B. PMC 20009 . PMID 9050871. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866.
^ Neves, W. A.; Powell, J. F.; Prous, A.; Ozolins, E. G.; Blum, M. (1999). „Lapa vermelha IV Hominid 1: morphological affinities of the earliest known American”. Genetics and Molecular Biology. 22 (4): 461. doi:10.1590/S1415-47571999000400001.

Literatura

Jablonski, Nina G (2002). The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World. California Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-0-940228-49-8.
Peter Charles Hoffer (2006). The Brave New World: A History of Early America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8483-2.
Meltzer, David J (2009). First peoples in a new world: colonizing ice age America. University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-0-520-25052-9.
Bradley, B.; Stanford, D. (2004). „The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World”. World Archaeology. 36 (4): 459—478. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.6801 . doi:10.1080/0043824042000303656.
Bradley, B.; Stanford, D. (2006). „The Solutrean-Clovis connection: reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel”. World Archaeology. 38 (4): 704—714. JSTOR 40024066. doi:10.1080/00438240601022001.
Dennis J. Stanford, Bruce Bradely, Pre-Clovis First Americans: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture (University of California Press). 2012. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
Dennis J. Stanford, Bruce A. Bradley, Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture (University of California Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
Dixon, E. James. Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico Press. 1993.
Dixon, E. James. Bones, Boats, and Bison: the Early Archeology of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press. 1993, 1999??
Erlandson, Jon M. Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast. Plenum Press. 1994.
Erlandson, Jon M (2001). „The Archaeology of Aquatic Adaptations: Paradigms for a New Millennium”. Journal of Archaeological Research. 9 (4): 287—350. doi:10.1023/a:1013062712695.
Erlandson, Jon M. Anatomically Modern Humans, Maritime Migrations, and the Peopling of the New World. In The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, edited by N. Jablonski, 2002. pp. 59–92. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco.
Erlandson, Jon. M.; Graham, M. H.; Bourque, Bruce J.; Corbett, Debra; Estes, James A.; Steneck, R. S. (2007). „The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, The Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas”. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 2 (2): 161—174. doi:10.1080/15564890701628612.
Eshleman, Jason A.; Malhi, Ripan S.; Glenn Smith, David (2003). „Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas”. Evolutionary Anthropology. 12: 7—18. doi:10.1002/evan.10048.
Fedje; Christensen (1999). „Modeling Paleoshorelines and Locating Early Holocene Coastal Sites in Haida Gwaii”. American Antiquity. 64 (4): 635—652. JSTOR 2694209. doi:10.2307/2694209.
Greenman, E. F. (1963). „The Upper Palaeolithic and the New World”. Current Anthropology. 4: 41—66. doi:10.1086/200337.
Hey, Jody (2005). „On the Number of New World Founders: A Population Genetic Portrait of the Peopling of the Americas”. PLOS Biology. 3 (6): e193. PMC 1131883 . PMID 15898833. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030193.
Jones, Peter N. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press. 2004, 2005.
Korotayev, Andrey et al. Which genes and myths did the different waves of the peopling of Americas bring to the New World?. History and Mathematics 6 (2017): 9–77.
Lauber, Patricia. Who Came First? New Clues to Prehistoric Americans. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2003.
Matson and Coupland. The Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. Academic Press. New York. 1995.
Snow, Dean R. "The First Americans and the Differentiation of Hunter-Gatherer Cultures." In Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb *E. Washburn, eds., The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume I: North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 125–199.
Wells, Spencer (2002). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11532-0.

Spoljašnje veze

[1] Paleolithic specifically refers to the period between око 2.5 million years ago and the end of the Pleistocene in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is not used in New World archaeology.

[Sonneborn-2007-2] Sonneborn, Liz (januar 2007). Chronology of American Indian History. Infobase Publishing. стр. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.

[Firsta-3] „First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News”. Архивирано из оригинала 10. 10. 2012. г. Приступљено 18. 11. 2009. „Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken” page 2 Архивирано 2012-03-13 на сајту Wayback Machine

[WardDavis1999-4] H. Trawick Ward; R. P. Stephen Davis (1999). Time before history: the archaeology of North Carolina. UNC Press Books. стр. 2. ISBN 978-0-8078-4780-0. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.

[Phillips-5] „Method and Theory in American Archaeology”. Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Архивирано из оригинала 28. 06. 2012. г. Приступљено 20. 11. 2009.

[AshRobinson2011-6] Patricia J. Ash; David J. Robinson (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. стр. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7.

[Pitblado2011-7] Pitblado, B. L. (12. 3. 2011). „A Tale of Two Migrations: Reconciling Recent Biological and Archaeological Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas”. Journal of Archaeological Research. 19 (4): 327—375. doi:10.1007/s10814-011-9049-y.

[8] Burenhult, Göran (2000). Die ersten Menschen. Weltbild Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8289-0741-6.

[White2006-9] Phillip M. White (2006). American Indian chronology: chronologies of the American mosaic. Greenwood Publishing Group. стр. 1. ISBN 978-0-313-33820-5. Приступљено 29. 11. 2011.

[SpencerWells2-10] а ^б Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey (Digitised online by Google books). Random House. стр. 138—140. ISBN 978-0-8129-7146-0. Приступљено 21. 11. 2009.

[Smithsonian-11] Fitzhugh, Drs. William; Goddard, Ives; Ousley, Steve; Owsley, Doug; Stanford, Dennis. „Paleoamerican”. Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office. Архивирано из оригинала 5. 1. 2009. г. Приступљено 15. 1. 2009.

[12] „The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health”. Scientific American. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.

[13] Fladmark, K. R. (januar 1979). „Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America”. American Antiquity. 44 (1): 55—69. JSTOR 279189. doi:10.2307/279189.

[14] „68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"”. Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.

[15] „Introduction”. Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 2009. Архивирано из оригинала 24. 4. 2011. г. Приступљено 9. 1. 2010. „Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago as at U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago”

[16] „Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats”. Vuntut National Park of Canada. 2008. Архивирано из оригинала 22. 10. 2008. г. Приступљено 10. 1. 2010. „However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago.”

[kind-17] „Journey of mankind”. Brad Shaw Foundation. Приступљено 17. 11. 2009.

[18] Bonatto, SL; Salzano, FM (1997). „A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data”. PNAS. 94 (5): 1866—71. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.1866B. PMC 20009 . PMID 9050871. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866.

[ReferenceA-19] Neves, W. A.; Powell, J. F.; Prous, A.; Ozolins, E. G.; Blum, M. (1999). „Lapa vermelha IV Hominid 1: morphological affinities of the earliest known American”. Genetics and Molecular Biology. 22 (4): 461. doi:10.1590/S1415-47571999000400001.

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